Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes

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Practice Essentials

Primary syndromes of generalized autonomic failure include the following:

Unlike the above disorders, which each affect sympathetic and parasympathetic function, the autonomic condition postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) affects only sympathetic function.

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of decreased sympathetic function may include the following:

Symptoms of decreased parasympathetic function may include the following:

Pure autonomic failure

More specifically, symptoms of PAF include the following:

Autoimmune autonomic neuropathy

The overall physical findings are similar to those observed in PAF. Patients may have additional findings of sensory abnormalities, pain, or loss of deep tendon reflexes.

Multiple system atrophy

Autonomic manifestations are similar to those observed in AAN and PAF. The following neurologic features may also be present:

Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

A greater than 30-bpm increase in heart rate on standing, without a clinically significant decrease in blood pressure, is diagnostic.

See Clinical Presentation for more detail.

Diagnosis

Lab studies

Drug or toxin exposure may cause generalized or organ-specific acute autonomic dysfunction. The predominant abnormality (ie, increased or decreased sympathetic or parasympathetic activity) should be identified. The patient's medications should be reviewed carefully.

Tests for systemic disorders causing secondary pandysautonomia, including the following, may be ordered according to clues from the patient’s history:

Imaging studies

Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Particularly in cases of centrally mediated dysautonomia

In MSA, brainstem or cerebellar atrophy may be seen, with T2 hyperintensity of the pons (the hot-crossed bun sign); these findings differentiate MSA from other types of primary autonomic dysfunction.[4]

See Workup for more detail.

Management

Treatment strategies for autonomic disorders include the following:

Nonpharmacologic measures are useful for all patients with autonomic dysfunction.[5] They include the following:

See Treatment and Medication for more detail.

Background

Autonomic failure has many causes and manifestations.

It may result from a primary disturbance of autonomic regulation or more commonly as a secondary effect of another systemic disorder (eg, diabetes, amyloidosis). This article focuses on primary syndromes of generalized autonomic failure and includes a discussion of pure autonomic failure and idiopathic orthostatic hypotension, autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). The selective sympathetic disturbance of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) is also discussed briefly.

On clinical examination, the syndromes sometimes may be difficult to differentiate, particularly in the early stages of disease. This has led to some confusion over the nomenclature of these disorders. The terminology continues to evolve and become more precise as a result of our improving understanding of the different pathophysiologic mechanisms leading to autonomic dysfunction.

The term pure autonomic failure (PAF) was coined by Roger Bannister. It encompasses disorders of autonomic function that do not affect the central nervous system (CNS). The term is more descriptive of a clinical presentation than of a single pathologic process. Idiopathic orthostatic hypotension, sometimes also referred to as Bradbury-Eggleston syndrome, falls into this general category. Although patients with PAF may share many common clinical features, especially orthostatic hypotension, it is now evident that the underlying disease processes are heterogeneous. Many patients who present with PAF may actually have an immunologically mediated autonomic neuropathy, whereas others may go on to develop MSA or other diseases that fall outside the PAF definition.

Autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (also known as autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy, acute panautonomic neuropathy, or acute pandysautonomia) has been increasingly recognized as an important cause of autonomic failure. It typically presents as a subacute or chronic condition. Antibodies to ganglionic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) are present in about two thirds of all subacute cases and in one third of chronic cases. AAN may also present as acute pandysautonomia and may be part of the spectrum of immunologically mediated neuropathies such as acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP, or Guillain-Barré syndrome) and chronic inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy. Mild somatic sensory and motor disturbances are sometimes seen in autonomic neuropathies.

MSA is a progressive, adult-onset disorder characterized by a combination of autonomic dysfunction, parkinsonism, and ataxia. Numerous accounts of the disorder were recorded throughout the 20th century under different labels such as olivopontocerebellar atrophy, striatonigral degeneration, or Shy-Drager syndrome. MSA with prominent autonomic abnormalities is still sometimes referred to as Shy-Drager syndrome. The disparate clinical presentations were not widely recognized as being histopathologically related until 1989. Today the dominant clinical features provide the basis for further classification of MSA into parkinsonian, and cerebellar variants.

POTS is a common, relatively benign disturbance of the sympathetic nervous system that primarily affects young women. POTS either develops slowly in adolescence, or abruptly after a febrile illness or other immunological challenge. This latter presentation may be due to an autoimmune mechanism. POTS is characterized by excessive adrenergic symptoms when the patient stands up. Syncope may occur but is unusual. A greater than 30-bpm increase in heart rate on standing, without substantial blood pressure reduction, is diagnostic. The causes of POTS are likely heterogeneous.

Pathophysiology

Dysfunction of central or peripheral nervous system pathways may cause autonomic dysfunction. A precise balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic inputs modulates the function of most major organ systems. Primary disorders of autonomic function almost never exclusively affect either sympathetic or parasympathetic function. POTS is an exception, involving only sympathetic function.

The hypothalamus, midbrain, brainstem, and intermediolateral cell columns in the spinal cord are the major regions in the CNS that are important in regulating autonomic activity. Sympathetic outputs arise in brain and brainstem centers, descend into the spinal cord, and synapse with neurons in the intermediolateral cell mass in the thoracic and upper lumbar segments. Axons originating in the spinal cord synapse with cells in paravertebral ganglia, which, in turn, provide sympathetic output to remote target organs. Parasympathetic outflow originates from the cranial and sacral segments. These axons synapse in ganglia located near their target organs.

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic synapses use acetylcholine (ACh) as the major neurotransmitter; postganglionic parasympathetic synapses and sympathetic sweat synapses also use acetylcholine. Other postganglionic sympathetic synapses use noradrenaline.

Symptoms frequently result from a disturbance of the relative contributions of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Depending on the organ system, the major input may be sympathetic or parasympathetic. For example, in the cardiovascular system, absence of sympathetic input may be especially problematic, contributing to orthostatic hypotension.

Etiology

The principal forms of autonomic failure are pure autonomic failure (PAF), autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN), multiple system atrophy (MSA), and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS). These have differing causes.

Pure autonomic failure

Patients who are initially identified as having PAF may have underlying pathology consistent with MSA or Parkinson's disease, or they may be found to have AAN after extensive testing. Involvement of the intermediolateral cell column with the loss of small sympathetic neurons has been observed in some patients.

Autoimmune autonomic neuropathy

The cause of AAN is presumed to be autoimmune. Autoantibodies against ganglionic AChRs are seen in one- to two-thirds of patients with this condition.[6] A preceding infection or other antecedent illness is noted in about 60% of cases. In rare cases, patients have a coexisting thymus tumor.

Multiple system atrophy

In MSA with autonomic involvement, changes in the intermediolateral cell column also may be seen; in addition, widespread abnormalities are apparent in the brain. Histopathologically, alpha-synuclein immunostaining demonstrates glial cytoplasmic inclusions. Associated clinical findings are related to the constellation of affected areas. Neuronal loss may be noted in the basal ganglia, pons, cerebellum, substantia nigra, locus ceruleus, nucleus of Edinger-Westphal, hypothalamus, thalamus, and vestibular complex.

Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

A norepinephrine transporter deficiency has been identified in 1 family. Polymorphisms in genes encoding the beta-2 adrenoreceptor and nitric oxide synthetase may play a role. Beta-receptor supersensitivity, reduced vagal function, brainstem dysfunction, and deficient cerebral blood flow autoregulation are other proposed mechanisms. Some patients have restricted autonomic neuropathy.

Vitamin B12 is involved in catecholamine metabolism, and Oner and colleagues have suggested that vitamin B12 deficiency in adolescents may cause sympathetic baroreceptor dysfunction. In their study of 125 adolescent patients who had suffered a short-term loss of consciousness and had been diagnosed with vasovagal syncope, 47.2% of patients had low vitamin B12 levels, compared with 18% of a group of 50 control subjects, and vitamin B12 levels were significantly lower in those patients diagnosed with POTS than in the other patients.[7, 8]

Frequency

United States

All of these syndromes are relatively uncommon. The prevalence of MSA is 1.9-4.9 cases per 100,000 population, as reported in several series. No accurate data on the frequency of AAN, PAF, or POTS are available.

Mortality/Morbidity

Autonomic dysfunction may cause clinically significant functional impairment. POTS is usually a benign, sometimes self-limiting condition, though rare patients have severe limitation in their activities.

Severe autonomic dysfunction may directly cause death. More often, chronic disability increases the patient's susceptibility to other potentially fatal complications, such as infection.

Race

No reliable data regarding race are available.

Sex

AAN and MSA have no clear sex predilection. In the literature about PAF, men were affected more often than women. POTS affects women 5 times more often than men.

Age

The diseases discussed here are primarily disorders of adulthood, with the exception of POTS, which primarily affects adolescents and young adults.

History

Features of autonomic disturbance in any of these conditions may include orthostasis, nausea, constipation, urinary retention or incontinence, nocturia, impotence, heat intolerance, and dry mucous membranes. Less commonly, patients experience periods of apnea or inspiratory stridor. Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) results in prominent excessive adrenergic symptoms, especially tachycardia.

Physical

See the list below:

Laboratory Studies

See the list below:

Imaging Studies

See the list below:

Other Tests

See the list below:

Procedures

See the list below:

Histologic Findings

Biopsy of the CNS is never part of the routine evaluation for these disorders (see Procedures). However, brain autopsy specimens in MSA show distinct glial cytoplasmic inclusions composed of 20- to 30-nm multilayered tubular filaments that are argyrophilic. The inclusions are found in the basal ganglia, the supplementary and primary motor cortex, the reticular formation, and the pontocerebellar system.

Alpha-synuclein is present in the glial inclusions and appears to play an important role in MSA. The autonomic failure in MSA likely results from cell loss in the dorsal motor nucleus of vagus nerve, locus coeruleus, and the catecholaminergic neurons of the ventrolateral medulla. Cell loss in the pontomedullary reticular formation, parasympathetic preganglionic nuclei of the spinal cord, and sympathetic intermediolateral column of the spinal cord are also important.

Other limited data on PAF demonstrate additional nerve cell loss and Lewy bodies, which stain for ubiquitin in the paravertebral sympathetic ganglia. Whether these patients had a form fruste of MSA is unclear.

Medical Care

The treatment of autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN) is based on anecdotal evidence. No data from large, controlled trials are available owing to the rarity of the disorder. The treatment of chronic pure autonomic failure syndromes is symptomatic only. Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome can be treated by using low doses of beta-blockers as patients are normally sensitive to their adverse effects.

Nonpharmacologic measures are useful for all patients with autonomic dysfunction.[5]

Immunomodulatory therapy has been used successfully to shorten the duration of symptoms and improve overall prognosis in acute and chronic pandysautonomia.[11]

Activity

Symptoms limit activity. Precautions for falling should be taken in patients who have orthostatic hypotension. In those with decreased sweating, vigorous exercise should be limited, and patients should be advised to have spray bottles of water or wet sponges available during hot weather or during physical activity.

Medication Summary

Several medications are available to help manage symptoms of autonomic dysfunction. The most commonly used are listed below.

Fludrocortisone (Florinef)

Clinical Context:  Used to increase standing blood pressure. Acts to increase sodium retention and expand plasma volume.

Class Summary

These agents play a role in hemodynamics and can be used to control orthostatic hypotension.

Midodrine (ProAmatine)

Clinical Context:  Alpha-adrenergic agonist used in orthostatic hypotension to increase standing blood pressure. Acts at level of resistance vessels and is useful for peripherally mediated hypotension.

Droxidopa (Northera)

Clinical Context:  Droxidopa is a norepinephrine precursor that is metabolized to norepinephrine by dopa-decarboxylase. Norepinephrine increases blood pressure by inducing peripheral arterial and venous vasoconstriction. It is indicated for symptomatic neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (NOH) in patients with primary autonomic failure (Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and pure autonomic failure), dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency, and nondiabetic autonomic neuropathy.

Class Summary

These agents improve the hemodynamic status by increasing blood pressure. Midodrine forms the active metabolite desglymidodrine, which is an alpha1-agonist. Desglymidodrine exerts its actions via activation of the alpha-adrenergic receptors of the arteriolar and venous vasculature, producing an increase in vascular tone and elevation of blood pressure. Droxidopa increases blood pressure by conversion to norepinephrine, but has no clinically significant effect on standing or supine heart rates in patients with autonomic failure.

Propranolol (Inderal)

Clinical Context:  Nonselective beta-blocker that is lipophilic (penetrates CNS).

Class Summary

These agents limit heart rate and reduce blood pressure.

Desmopressin (DDAVP, Stimate)

Clinical Context:  Increases cellular permeability of collecting ducts, resulting in reabsorption of water by kidneys. Helpful for symptoms of nocturia.

Class Summary

These agents augment both coronary and cerebral blood flow that occurs during the low flow state associated idiopathic hypotension.

Epoetin alfa (Epogen, Procrit)

Clinical Context:  Stimulates RBC production in bone marrow. Increases sensitivity to pressor effects of angiotensin II, intravascular volume, cytosolic free calcium in vascular smooth muscle, and plasma endothelin level. Enhances renal tubular reabsorption.

Class Summary

Anemia may occur due to low blood levels of endogenous erythropoietin, which can result from a lack of sympathetic innervation. Erythropoietins may also increase blood pressure through other mechanisms.

Metoclopramide (Reglan)

Clinical Context:  Dopamine agonist helpful in relieving GI paresis.

Class Summary

These agents promote motility of the GI tract.

Pyridostigmine bromide (Mestinon)

Clinical Context:  Stimulates muscarinic AChR, increasing salivation and gastric motility.

Class Summary

These agents inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), raising the concentration of ACh at cholinergic synapses and increasing the chance of activating the AChR.

Psyllium (Metamucil, Fiberall)

Clinical Context:  Must be taken with water or may cause obstruction. Increase dose gradually. Inform patient that effect not immediate.

Class Summary

Used for the chronic treatment of constipation.

Oxybutynin (Ditropan)

Clinical Context:  Useful for urinary urgency. Inhibits action of ACh on smooth muscle and direct antispasmodic effect on smooth muscle, which increases bladder capacity and decreases uninhibited contractions.

Class Summary

These agents may be helpful for urinary symptoms.

Bethanechol hydrochloride (Duvoid, Urecholine)

Clinical Context:  For selective stimulation of the bladder to produce contraction to initiate micturition and empty bladder. Most useful in bladder hypotonia. Rarely used because of GI stimulation and difficulty in timing effect.

Class Summary

These agents stimulate cholinergic receptors in the smooth muscle of the urinary bladder for stimulation of bladder emptying.

Sildenafil (Viagra)

Clinical Context:  Selective PDE5 inhibitor that inactivates cGMP, attenuating vasodilatory effect of NO. Effective in mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction. Patient should take on an empty stomach about 1 h before sexual activity. Sexual stimulation necessary to activate response. Increased sensitivity for erections may last 24 h.

Class Summary

These oral agents act peripherally to induce smooth muscle relaxation of the corpora cavernosa.

Prednisone (Deltasone, Orasone, Meticorten)

Clinical Context:  Shorten duration of symptoms and improves overall prognosis in acute pandysautonomia.

Class Summary

These agents regulate key factors in the immune system.

Immune globulins intravenous (IVIG, Gammagard, Gamimune)

Clinical Context:  Shortens duration of symptoms and improves overall prognosis in acute pandysautonomia. Clinical improvements have been reported within few days of administration, with normalization of autonomic parameters.

Neutralize circulating myelin antibodies through antiidiotypic antibodies; down-regulates proinflammatory cytokines, including INF-gamma; blocks Fc receptors on macrophages; suppresses inducer T and B cells and augments suppressor T cells; blocks complement cascade; promotes remyelination; may increase CSF IgG (10%).

Class Summary

These agents are used to improve clinical and immunologic aspects of the disease. May decrease autoantibody production, and increase solubilization and removal of immune complexes.

Further Inpatient Care

See the list below:

Prognosis

See the list below:

What are the primary syndromes of generalized autonomic failure?What are the symptoms of decreased sympathetic function in autonomic failure?What are the symptoms of decreased parasympathetic function in autonomic failure?What are the symptoms of pure autonomic failure (PAF)?What are the physical findings characteristic of autoimmune autonomic neuropathy?What are the signs and symptoms of multiple system atrophy?What are the signs and symptoms of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome?What is the role of lab studies in the diagnosis of autonomic failure syndromes?What is the role of drug exposure in the etiology of autonomic failure syndromes?Which tests may be performed to identify systemic disorders causing secondary pandysautonomia?What is the role of imaging studies in the diagnosis of autonomic failure syndromes?What are treatment strategies for autonomic failure syndromes?What are nonpharmacologic treatment options for autonomic dysfunction syndromes?What causes autonomic failure?How is pure autonomic failure (PAF) characterized?How is autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN) characterized?How is multiple system atrophy (MSA) characterized relative to autonomic failure?How is postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) characterized?What is the pathophysiology of autonomic failure syndromes?What are the principal forms of autonomic failure?What causes pure autonomic failure?What causes autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN)?What causes multiple system atrophy (MSA)?What causes postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)?What is the prevalence of autonomic failure syndromes in the US?What is the mortality and morbidity associated with autonomic dysfunction syndromes?What are the racial predilections of autonomic failure syndromes?How does the prevalence of autonomic failure syndromes vary by sex?How does the prevalence of autonomic failure syndromes vary by age?Which clinical history is characteristic of autonomic failure syndromes?What are symptoms of decreased sympathetic function in autonomic failure syndromes?What are symptoms of decreased parasympathetic function in autonomic failure syndromes?What are the signs and symptoms of pure autonomic failure (PAF)?What are the signs and symptoms of autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN)?What are the signs and symptoms of multiple system atrophy (MSA)?What are the signs and symptoms of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)?What are the physical findings characteristic of pure autonomic failure (PAF)?What are the physical findings characteristic of autoimmune autonomic neuropathy (AAN)?What are the physical findings characteristic of multiple system atrophy (MSA)?What are the physical findings characteristic of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)?What are the differential diagnoses for Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?What is the role of lab studies in the workup of autonomic failure syndromes?Which medications should be reviewed in the evaluation of autonomic failure syndromes?Which finding suggests a diagnosis of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy (HSAN)?What tests may be performed to identify systemic disorders causing secondary pandysautonomia?What is the role of imaging studies in the workup of autonomic failure syndrome?Which cardiovascular tests may be indicated in the workup of autonomic failure syndrome?Which additional tests may be needed for the diagnosis of autonomic failure syndromes?What is the role of lumbar puncture and biopsy in the evaluation of autonomic failure syndromes?Which histologic findings suggest autonomic failure syndromes?What are the treatment options for autonomic failure syndromes?What are nonpharmacologic treatment options for autonomic failure syndromes?What is the role of immunomodulatory therapy for autonomic failure syndromes?What activity modifications are needed for the treatment of autonomic failure syndromes?Which medications are used to manage symptoms of autonomic failure syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Immune globulins are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Corticosteroids are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Phosphodiesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Cholinergic agents are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Antispasmodic agents are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Bulk agents are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Anticholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Gastroprokinetic agents are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Erythropoietins are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Vasopressors are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Beta-adrenergic blocking agents are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Alpha-adrenergic agonists are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?Which medications in the drug class Mineralocorticoids are used in the treatment of Idiopathic Orthostatic Hypotension and other Autonomic Failure Syndromes?What is included in inpatient care for autonomic failure syndromes?What is the prognosis of autonomic failure syndromes?

Author

Mohini Gurme, MD, Resident Physician, Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Bjorn E Oskarsson, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Flex Pharma<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Grifols<br/>Received research grant from: Neuraltus, Glaxo, Eisai, Cytokinetics, Genentech,.

Dianna Quan, MD, Professor of Neurology, Director of Electromyography Laboratory, University of Colorado School of Medicine

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Alnylam; Pfizer; Cytokinetics; Momenta.

Specialty Editors

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Neil A Busis, MD, Chief of Neurology and Director of Neurodiagnostic Laboratory, UPMC Shadyside; Clinical Professor of Neurology and Director of Community Neurology, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh Physicians

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: American Academy of Neurology<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: American Academy of Neurology<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: American Academy of Neurology.

Chief Editor

Selim R Benbadis, MD, Professor, Director of Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Tampa General Hospital, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Ceribell, Eisai, Greenwich, Growhealthy, LivaNova, Neuropace, SK biopharmaceuticals, Sunovion<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Eisai, Greenwich, LivaNova, Sunovion<br/>Received research grant from: Cavion, LivaNova, Greenwich, Sunovion, SK biopharmaceuticals, Takeda, UCB.

Additional Contributors

Christopher Luzzio, MD, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin at Madison School of Medicine and Public Health

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author Jeffrey Tam Sing, MD to the development and writing of this article.

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