Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is an acute viral illness that presents as a vesicular eruption in the mouth (see the image below), but it can also involve the hands, feet, buttocks, and/or genitalia. Coxsackievirus A type 16 (CVA16) is the etiologic agent involved in most cases of HFMD, but the illness is also associated with coxsackievirus A5, A7, A9, A10, B2, and B5 strains. Enterovirus 71 (EV-71) has caused outbreaks of HFMD with associated neurologic involvement in the western Pacific region.
View Image
The lower lip has an ulcer with an erythematous halo.
See Clues in the Oral Cavity: Are You Missing the Diagnosis?, a Critical Images slideshow, to help identify the causes of abnormalities of the oral cavity.
Also, see the 15 Rashes You Need to Know: Common Dermatologic Diagnoses slideshow to help identify and treat various rashes and the 15 Back-to-School Illnesses You Should Know slideshow to help identify conditions that may occur in young patients after they return to the classroom.
Signs and symptoms
The history in patients with HFMD is as follows:
Sore mouth or throat
Malaise
Rarely, vomiting occurs in HFMD cases caused by EV-71
Physical findings include the following:
Initially, macular lesions appear on the buccal mucosa, tongue, and/or hard palate
These mucosal lesions rapidly progress to vesicles that erode and become surrounded by an erythematous halo
Lesions may also be found on the hands, feet, buttocks, and genitalia
A fever of 38-39°C may be present for 24-48 hours
Atypical clinical features include concomitant aseptic meningitis in HFMD caused by coxsackievirus strains (rare).[1] HFMD caused by EV-71 has a higher incidence of neurologic involvement, including the following[2] :
A poliolike syndrome
Aseptic meningitis
Encephalitis
Encephalomyelitis
Acute cerebellar ataxia
Acute transverse myelitis
Guillain-Barré syndrome
Opsomyoclonus syndrome
Benign intracranial hypertension
See Clinical Presentation for more detail.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of HFMD is typically based on clinical grounds. Laboratory studies are usually unnecessary, but the following may be done:
The virus can be isolated and identified via culture and immunoassay from cutaneous lesions, mucosal lesions, or stool samples; oral specimens have the highest isolation rate
In patients with vesicles, vesicle swabs are also a good source for viral collection
In patients without vesicles, rectal swabs can be collected
For viral isolation, 2 swab collections are recommended: From the throat and from either vesicles or the rectum
Serologic testing (eg, acute and convalescent antibody levels) may be obtained
Differentiating coxsackievirus-associated HFMD from EV-71–associated HFMD may have prognostic significance
PCR and microarray technology are among the various ways of identifying the causative virus[3]
See Workup for more detail.
Management
There is no antiviral agent specific for the etiologic agents of HFMD. Instead, the treatment is supportive, as follows:
Ensure adequate fluid intake to prevent dehydration; cold liquids are generally preferable
Spicy or acidic substances may cause discomfort
Intravenous hydration may be necessary if the patient has moderate-to-severe dehydration or if discomfort precludes oral intake
Fever may be treated with antipyretics
Pain may be treated with standard doses of acetaminophen or ibuprofen
Direct analgesia may also be applied to the oral cavity via mouthwashes or sprays
IVIG and milrinone have shown some efficacy in a few reports[4, 5, 6]
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is an acute viral illness that presents as a vesicular eruption in the mouth. HFMD can also involve the hands, feet, buttocks, and/or genitalia. Coxsackievirus A type 16 (CV A16) is the etiologic agent involved in most cases of HFMD, but the illness is also associated with coxsackievirus A5, A7, A9, A10, B2, and B5 strains. Enterovirus 71 (EV-71) has also caused outbreaks of HFMD with associated neurologic involvement in the western Pacific region.
Coxsackievirus is a subgroup of the enteroviruses and is a member of the family Picornaviridae. This family consists of small, nonenveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses.
Infection generally occurs via the fecal-oral route or via contact with skin lesions and oral secretions. Viremia develops, followed by invasion of the skin and mucous membranes. Widespread apoptosis likely results in the characteristic lesion formation.
Epidemics of HFMD generally occur in the summer to early fall months, although cases can occur sporadically all year.
International
HFMD epidemics associated with EV-71 have been more frequent in Southeast Asia in recent years, including Taiwan (1998) and Singapore (2000). Risk factors in these epidemics include attendance at child care centers, contact with HFMD, large family number, and rural residence.[7]
HFMD caused by coxsackievirus is generally a mild self-limited illness that resolves in 7-10 days; rarely, HFMD may recur or persist. Serious complications are also rare.
Severe oral ulcerations can create painful stomatitis. This may interfere with oral intake and cause dehydration, the most common complication of HFMD. Rarely, aseptic meningitis accompanies coxsackievirus-induced HFMD.
HFMD caused by EV-71 has a higher incidence of neurologic involvement, including a poliolike syndrome, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, acute cerebellar ataxia, acute transverse myelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, opsomyoclonus syndrome, and benign intracranial hypertension. These neurological complications have been attributed to either immunopathology or virus-induced damage to gray matter.[1, 8]
Rarely, cardiopulmonary complications such as myocarditis, interstitial pneumonitis, and pulmonary edema may occur. Neurologic involvement with sequelae is less likely to occur in patients with HFMD caused by coxsackievirus strains than with HFMD caused by EV-71. Chang et al analyzed the Taiwan HFMD epidemic of 1998 and revealed that 68% of the EV-71 cases were uncomplicated.[9] Thirty-two percent of the cases had complications; 7.3% involved aseptic meningitis, 10% involved encephalitis, 2.3% involved poliolike syndrome, 4.5% involved encephalomyelitis, and 6.8% involved fatal pulmonary edema (7.9% of patients died and 4% of patients had sequelae). In the coxsackievirus A16 group, 94% of the cases of were uncomplicated; only 6.3% cases were complicated by aseptic meningitis; no fatalities or sequelae were reported.
Chong et al observed vomiting, leukocytosis, and an absence of mouth ulcers as predictive risk factors for fatal cases of EV-71 HFMD during the Singapore epidemic in 2000.[2]
Sex
Most reports indicate that HFMD has no sexual predilection. Some epidemic data observe a slight male-to-female predominance ratio of 1.2-1.3:1.
Age
Children younger than 10 years are most commonly affected with HFMD, and subsequent outbreaks among family members and close contacts may develop.[10]
The incubation period of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) lasts approximately 1 week; patients then report a sore mouth or throat. Malaise may develop. Rarely, vomiting occurs in HFMD cases caused by EV-71.
Initially, macular lesions appear on the buccal mucosa, tongue, and/or hard palate. These mucosal lesions rapidly progress to vesicles that erode and become surrounded by an erythematous halo, as shown in the image below. Skin lesions, which present as tender macules or vesicles on an erythematous base, develop in approximately 75% of patients with HFMD. A fever of 38-39°C may be present for 24-48 hours.
View Image
The lower lip has an ulcer with an erythematous halo.
Atypical clinical features may be present. HFMD caused by coxsackievirus strains rarely presents with concomitant aseptic meningitis.[1] HFMD caused by EV-71 has a higher incidence of neurologic involvement, including a poliolike syndrome, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, acute cerebellar ataxia, acute transverse myelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, opsomyoclonus syndrome, and benign intracranial hypertension.[2]
HFMD is most commonly caused by coxsackievirus A16, but it is also caused by coxsackieviruses A5, A7, A9 A10, B2, and B5 and EV-71. Two major genotypes of EV-71, EV-71 B and C, have been identified as the strains principally involved in the EV-71 HFMD epidemics in Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan since 1997. These genotypes are considered particularly neurovirulent, accounting for the severe neurologic complications seen in EV-71 HFMD epidemics.[11]
The diagnosis of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is typically based on clinical grounds. Laboratory studies are usually unnecessary.
The virus can be isolated and identified via culture and immunoassay from cutaneous lesions, mucosal lesions, or stool samples. Oral specimens have the highest isolation rate. In patients with vesicles, vesicle swabs are also a good source for viral collection. In patients without vesicles, rectal swabs can be collected. For viral isolation, 2 swab collections are recommended—from the throat and the other from either vesicles or the rectum.
Serologic testing (eg, acute and convalescent antibody levels) may be obtained.
Differentiating coxsackie-associated from EV-71–associated HFMD may have prognostic significance. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and microarray technology are among the various ways of identifying the causative virus. Specific assays vary between hospitals.[3]
The treatment of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is supportive. In fact, there is no antiviral agent specific for the etiologic agents. Ensure adequate fluid intake to prevent dehydration. Cold liquids are generally preferable. Spicy or acidic substances may cause discomfort. Intravenous hydration may be necessary if the patient has moderate-to-severe dehydration or if discomfort precludes oral intake. Fever may be treated with antipyretics. Pain may be treated with standard doses of acetaminophen or ibuprofen. Direct analgesia may also be applied to the oral cavity via mouthwashes or sprays. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and milrinone have shown some efficacy in a few reports.[4, 5, 6]
There is a relative dearth of treatment options for enterovirus-associated HFMD cases. Recent research has yielded several promising novel and existing therapeutics targeting specific viral mechanisms of action. These include molecular decoys, receptor antagonists, uncoating and translation inhibitors, polyprotein processing inhibitors, and replication inhibitors. Pleconaril is an uncoating inhibitor that shows promise in enterovirus 71–associated infections.
Amantadine and quinacrine, both translation inhibitors, and ribavirin, a replication inhibitor, are also being investigated as treatment options.[12]
Clinical Context:
Reduces fever by acting directly on hypothalamic heat-regulating centers, which increases dissipation of body heat via vasodilation and sweating.
Clinical Context:
Decreases permeability to sodium ions in neuronal membranes. This results in the inhibition of depolarization, blocking the transmission of nerve impulses.
Closely observe infants with HFMD for development of dehydration.
Clinical improvement is observed after approximately 3-5 days; cutaneous and mucosal lesions resolve in 7-10 days. The patient may continue to shed virus through the stool for weeks.
Rarely, aseptic meningitis and other neurological complications accompany HFMD. More commonly, oral ulcerations can interfere with fluid intake and cause dehydration, the most common complication of HFMD.
Rare case reports show spontaneous abortions associated with HFMD.
What is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What are the signs and symptoms of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which neurological conditions are associated with hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?How is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) diagnosed?How is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) managed?What is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What is coxsackievirus?What is the pathogenesis of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?At what time of the year are hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) epidemics most likely to occur?What are the risk factors for developing hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?How long does hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) normally last?What are common complications of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which etiologic factor increases the risk of neurological involvement in hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which complications are more likely to occur with hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) caused by enterovirus 71 (EV-71)?Is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) more common in males or females?Which age groups are most affected by hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What is the incubation period for hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which physical findings suggest hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What are atypical physical findings of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which viruses cause hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which disorders should be included in the differential diagnoses of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What are the differential diagnoses for Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease (HFMD)?How is hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) diagnosed?What is the treatment for hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Are there any treatment options for enterovirus-associated hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What is the goal of pharmacotherapy for hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?Which medications in the drug class Antipyretics/analgesics are used in the treatment of Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease (HFMD)?Which medications in the drug class Topical anesthetics are used in the treatment of Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease (HFMD)?Which medications in the drug class Antihistamines are used in the treatment of Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease (HFMD)?What is the standard outpatient care for hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?When is hospitalization indicated in the treatment of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What are possible complications of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?What is the prognosis of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD)?
Stephen J Nervi, MD, Staff Physician, Department of Dermatology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Coauthor(s)
Rajendra Kapila, MD, MBBS, Professor, Department of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH, Professor and Head of Dermatology, Professor of Pathology, Professor of Pediatrics, Professor of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Specialty Editors
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Thomas M Kerkering, MD, Chief of Infectious Diseases, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
Michael Stuart Bronze, MD, David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart G Wolf Endowed Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center; Master of the American College of Physicians; Fellow, Infectious Diseases Society of America; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Additional Contributors
Gary L Gorby, MD, Associate Professor, Departments of Internal Medicine and Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Infectious Diseases, Creighton University School of Medicine; Associate Professor of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center; Associate Chair, Omaha Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
Diane H Johnson, MD Assistant Director, Assistant Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Winthrop-University Hospital, State University of New York at Stony Brook School of Medicine
Diane H Johnson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, American Medical Women's Association, American Society for Microbiology, and Infectious Diseases Society of America
Boughton B. EV71: Vaccine Prevents Hand-Foot-Mouth, Associated Disease. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/804983. Accessed: June 4, 2013.
Modlin JF. Coxsachie Virus, Echoviruses, and Newer Enteroviruses. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Disease. 5th ed. 2000. 1904-17.