Metabolic Alkalosis

Practice Essentials

Metabolic alkalosis is a primary increase in serum bicarbonate (HCO₃^-) concentration. This occurs as a consequence of a loss of H⁺ from the body or a gain in HCO₃^-. In its pure form, it manifests as alkalemia (pH >7.40). As a compensatory mechanism, metabolic alkalosis leads to alveolar hypoventilation with a rise in arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO₂), which diminishes the change in pH that would otherwise occur.

Normally, arterial PaCO₂ increases by 0.5-0.7 mm Hg for every 1 mEq/L increase in plasma bicarbonate concentration, a compensatory response that is very quick. If the change in PaCO₂ is not within this range, then a mixed acid-base disturbance occurs. For example, if the increase in PaCO₂ is more than 0.7 times the increase in bicarbonate, then metabolic alkalosis coexists with primary respiratory acidosis. Likewise, if the increase in PaCO₂ is less than the expected change, then a primary respiratory alkalosis is also present.

The first clue to metabolic alkalosis is often an elevated bicarbonate concentration that is observed when serum electrolyte measurements are obtained. Remember that an elevated serum bicarbonate concentration may also be observed as a compensatory response to primary respiratory acidosis. However, a bicarbonate concentration greater than 35 mEq/L is almost always caused by metabolic alkalosis.

Metabolic alkalosis is diagnosed by measuring serum electrolytes and arterial blood gases. If the etiology of metabolic alkalosis is not clear from the clinical history and physical examination, including drug use and the presence of hypertension, then a urine chloride ion concentration can be obtained. Calculation of the serum anion gap may also help to differentiate between primary metabolic alkalosis and metabolic compensation for respiratory acidosis. (See Workup.)

The management of metabolic alkalosis depends primarily on the underlying etiology and on the patient’s volume status. Direct treatment of the alkalosis itself (eg, administration of acidic intravenous solutions) may be indicated in some cases (see Treatment).

An algorithmic approach to metabolic alkalosis is depicted in the image below.

View Image

Algorithm for metabolic alkalosis.

For a discussion of metabolic alkalosis in children, see Pediatric Metabolic Alkalosis. For a general review of acid-base regulation, see Metabolic Acidosis.

• References

Pathophysiology

The organ systems involved in metabolic alkalosis are mainly the kidneys and GI tract. The pathogenesis involves two processes, the generation of metabolic alkalosis and the maintenance of metabolic alkalosis, which usually overlap.

Generation of metabolic alkalosis

Metabolic alkalosis may be generated by one of the following mechanisms:

• Loss of hydrogen ions
• Shift of hydrogen ions into the intracellular space
• Alkali administration
• Contraction alkalosis

Hydrogen ions may be lost through the kidneys or the GI tract. Vomiting or nasogastric (NG) suction generates metabolic alkalosis by the loss of gastric secretions, which are rich in hydrochloric acid (HCl). Whenever a hydrogen ion is excreted, a bicarbonate ion is gained in the extracellular space.

Renal losses of hydrogen ions occur whenever the distal delivery of sodium increases in the presence of excess aldosterone, which stimulates the electrogenic epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the collecting duct. As this channel reabsorbs sodium ions, the tubular lumen becomes more negative, leading to the secretion of hydrogen ions and potassium ions into the lumen.

Shift of hydrogen ions into the intracellular space mainly develops with hypokalemia. As the extracellular potassium concentration decreases, potassium ions move out of the cells. To maintain neutrality, hydrogen ions move into the intracellular space.

Administration of sodium bicarbonate in amounts that exceed the capacity of the kidneys to excrete this excess bicarbonate may cause metabolic alkalosis. This capacity is reduced when a reduction in filtered bicarbonate occurs, as observed in renal failure, or when enhanced tubular reabsorption of bicarbonate occurs, as observed in volume depletion (see Maintenance of metabolic alkalosis).

Loss of bicarbonate-poor, chloride-rich extracellular fluid, as observed with thiazide diuretic or loop diuretic therapy or chloride diarrhea, leads to contraction of extracellular fluid volume. Because the original bicarbonate mass is now dissolved in a smaller volume of fluid, an increase in bicarbonate concentration occurs. This increase in bicarbonate causes, at most, a 2- to 4-mEq/L rise in bicarbonate concentration.

Maintenance of metabolic alkalosis

Decreased perfusion to the kidneys, caused by either volume depletion or a reduction in effective circulating blood volume (eg, edematous states such as heart failure or cirrhosis) stimulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. This increases renal sodium ion reabsorption throughout the nephron, including the principal cells of the collecting duct, and results in enhanced hydrogen ion secretion via the apical proton pump H⁺ adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) in the adjacent A-type intercalated cells.

Aldosterone may also independently increase the activity of the apical proton pump in the collecting duct. Whenever a hydrogen ion is secreted into the tubular lumen, a bicarbonate ion is gained into the systemic circulation via the basolateral Cl^-/HCO₃^- exchanger.

Chloride depletion may occur through the GI tract by loss of gastric secretions, which are rich in chloride ions, or through the kidneys with loop diuretics or thiazides. Chloride depletion, even without volume depletion, enhances bicarbonate reabsorption by different mechanisms as discussed below.

In the late thick ascending limb (TAL) and early distal tubule, specialized cells called the macula densa are present. These cells have an Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter in the apical membrane, which is mainly regulated by chloride ions. When fewer chloride ions reach this transporter (eg, chloride depletion), the macula densa signals the juxtaglomerular apparatus (ie, specialized cells in the wall of the adjacent afferent arteriole) to secrete renin, which increases aldosterone secretion via angiotensin II.

In alkalemia, the kidneys secrete the excess bicarbonate via the apical chloride/bicarbonate exchanger, pendrin, in the B-type intercalated cells of the collecting duct. In this way, protons are gained to the systemic circulation via the basolateral H⁺ ATPase. In chloride depletion, fewer chloride ions are available to be exchanged with bicarbonate, and the ability of the kidneys to excrete the excess bicarbonate is impaired.

Many of the causes of metabolic alkalosis are also associated with hypokalemia. In turn, hypokalemia maintains metabolic alkalosis by five different mechanisms.

First, hypokalemia results in the shift of hydrogen ions intracellularly. The resulting intracellular acidosis enhances bicarbonate reabsorption in the collecting duct.

Second, hypokalemia stimulates the apical H⁺/K⁺ ATPase in the collecting duct. Increased activity of this ATPase leads to teleologically appropriate potassium ion reabsorption but a corresponding hydrogen ion secretion. This leads to a net gain of bicarbonate, maintaining systemic alkalosis.

Third, hypokalemia stimulates renal ammonia genesis, reabsorption, and secretion. Ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) are produced in the proximal tubule from the metabolism of glutamine. During this process, alpha-ketoglutarate is produced, the metabolism of which generates bicarbonate that is returned to the systemic circulation. Hypokalemia stimulates NH₄⁺ uptake via the Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter of TAL because NH₄⁺ competes with K⁺ for the transporter. Hypokalemia increases the expression of the ammonia transporter RhBG, which increases NH₃ excretion in the collecting duct.

Fourth, it leads to impaired chloride ion reabsorption in the distal nephron. This results in an increase in luminal electronegativity, with subsequent enhancement of hydrogen ion secretion.

Fifth, it reduces the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Animal studies have shown that hypokalemia, by unknown mechanisms, decreases GFR, which decreases the filtered load of bicarbonate. In the presence of volume depletion, this impairs renal excretion of the excess bicarbonate.

• References

Etiology

The most common causes of metabolic alkalosis are the use of diuretics and the external loss of gastric secretions. Causes of metabolic alkalosis can be divided into chloride-responsive alkalosis (urine chloride < 20 mEq/L), chloride-resistant alkalosis (urine chloride >20 mEq/L), and other causes, including alkali-loading alkalosis.

Chloride-responsive alkalosis

The principal causes of chloride-responsive alkalosis are the loss of gastric secretions, ingestion of large doses of nonabsorbable antacids, and use of thiazide or loop diuretics.^[1] Miscellaneous causes account for the remainder of cases.

Gastric secretions are rich in hydrochloric acid (HCl). The secretion of HCl by the stomach usually stimulates bicarbonate secretion by the pancreas once the HCl reaches the duodenum. Ordinarily, these pancreatic secretions neutralize the gastric secretions, and no net gain or loss of hydrogen ions or bicarbonate occurs.

When HCl is lost through vomiting (including purging, in persons with eating disorders^[2] ) or nasogastric suction, pancreatic secretions are not stimulated and a net gain of bicarbonate into the systemic circulation occurs, generating a metabolic alkalosis. Volume depletion maintains alkalosis. In this case, the hypokalemia is secondary to the alkalosis itself and to renal loss of potassium ions from the stimulation of aldosterone secretion.

Ingestion of large doses of nonabsorbable antacids (eg, magnesium hydroxide) may generate metabolic alkalosis by a rather complicated mechanism. Upon ingestion of magnesium hydroxide, calcium, or aluminum with base hydroxide or carbonate, the hydroxide anion buffers hydrogen ions in the stomach. The cation binds to bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas, leading to loss of bicarbonate with stools. In this process, both hydrogen ions and bicarbonate are lost, and, usually, no acid-base disturbance occurs. Sometimes, however, not all the bicarbonate binds to the ingested cation, which means that some bicarbonate is reabsorbed in excess of the lost hydrogen ions. This occurs primarily when antacids are administered with a cation-exchange resin (eg, sodium polystyrene sulfonate [Kayexalate]); the resin binds the cation, leaving bicarbonate unbound.

Thiazides and loop diuretics enhance sodium chloride excretion in the distal convoluted tubule and the thick ascending loop, respectively. These agents cause metabolic alkalosis by chloride depletion and by increased delivery of sodium ions to the collecting duct, which enhances potassium ion and hydrogen ion secretion.

Volume depletion also stimulates aldosterone secretion, which enhances sodium ion reabsorption in the collecting duct and increases hydrogen ion and potassium secretion in this segment. Urine chloride is low after discontinuation of diuretic therapy, while it is high during active diuretic use.

Miscellaneous causes of metabolic alkalosis include villous adenomas, which are a rare cause of diarrhea. Villous adenomas usually lead to metabolic acidosis from loss of colonic secretions that are rich in bicarbonate, but occasionally these tumors cause metabolic alkalosis. The mechanism is not well understood. Some authors opine that hypokalemia from these tumors is the etiology of the metabolic alkalosis.

Congenital chloridorrhea (see Chloride Diarrhea, Familial. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man [OMIM]) is a rare form of severe secretory diarrhea that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. Mutations in the down-regulated adenoma gene result in defective function of the chloride/bicarbonate exchange in the colon and ileum, leading to increased secretion of chloride and reabsorption of bicarbonate.

During respiratory acidosis, the kidneys reabsorb bicarbonate and secrete chloride to compensate for the acidosis. In the posthypercapnic state, urine chloride is high and can lead to chloride depletion. Once the respiratory acidosis is corrected, the kidneys cannot excrete the excess bicarbonate because of the low luminal chloride.

Infants with cystic fibrosis (see Cystic Fibrosis [OMIM]) may develop metabolic alkalosis because of loss of chloride in sweat. These infants are also prone to volume depletion.

Chloride-resistant alkalosis

Causes of chloride-resistant alkalosis can be divided into those associated with hypertension and those associated with hypotension or normotension. The former may result from primary hyperaldosteronism, as well as a variety of acquired and hereditary disorders. An adrenal adenoma (most common), bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, or an adrenal carcinoma may cause primary hyperaldosteronism.^[3]

Another cause of primary hyperaldosteronism is glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism (see Hyperaldosteronism, Familial, Type 1 [OMIM]), an autosomal dominant disorder, in which ectopic production of aldosterone in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex occurs. In this case, aldosterone production is controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) rather than angiotensin II and potassium, its principal regulators. This type of primary hyperaldosteronism responds to glucocorticoid therapy, which inhibits aldosterone secretion by suppressing ACTH.

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the collecting duct usually is responsive to both aldosterone and cortisol. Cortisol has a higher affinity for the MR and circulates at a higher concentration than aldosterone. Under physiological conditions, however, the enzyme 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11B-HSD2) inactivates cortisol to cortisone in the collecting duct, allowing aldosterone free access to its receptor.

Deficiency of this enzyme leads to occupation and activation of the MR by cortisol, which, like aldosterone, then stimulates the ENaC. Cortisol behaves as a mineralocorticoid under these circumstances.

11B-HSD2 deficiency may be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait (see Cortisol 11-Beta-Ketoreductase Deficiency [OMIM]), manifesting as syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME). The enzyme may be inhibited by glycyrrhizic acid, which is found in licorice and chewing tobacco, or carbenoxolone, which is a synthetic derivative of glycyrrhizinic acid.

Deficiency or inhibition of 11B-HSD2 causes hypertension with low renin and low aldosterone, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis. Serum cortisol is within the reference range because the negative feedback of cortisol on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is intact.

Active use of thiazides or loop diuretics in hypertension is the most common cause of metabolic alkalosis in hypertensive patients. The mechanism of alkalosis is discussed above.

The enhanced mineralocorticoid effect in Cushing syndrome is caused by occupation of the MR by the high concentration of cortisol. Hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis are more common in Cushing syndrome caused by ectopic ACTH production (90%) than in other causes of Cushing syndrome (10%). This difference is related to the higher concentration of plasma cortisol and the defective 11B-HSD activity found in ectopic ACTH production.

Liddle syndrome (see Liddle Syndrome [OMIM]) is a rare autosomal dominant disorder arising from a gain-of-function mutation in the beta (SCNN1B) or gamma subunit (SCNN1G) of the ENaC in the collecting duct. The channel behaves as if it is permanently open, and unregulated reabsorption of Na⁺ occurs, leading to volume expansion and hypertension. This unregulated Na⁺ reabsorption is responsible for secondary renal hydrogen ion and potassium ion losses and persists despite suppression of aldosterone.

Significant unilateral or bilateral renal artery stenosis stimulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, leading to hypertension and hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis.

Renin- or deoxycorticosterone-secreting tumors are rare. In renin-secreting tumors, excessive amounts of renin are secreted by tumors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus, stimulating aldosterone secretion. In the latter, deoxycorticosterone (DOC), rather than aldosterone, is secreted by some adrenal tumors and has mineralocorticoid effects.

Mutation in mineralocorticoid receptor (see Hypertension, Early-Onset, Autosomal Dominant, with Severe Exacerbation in Pregnancy [OMIM]) is a form of early-onset hypertension with autosomal dominant inheritance that has now been linked to a specific mutation of the MR. This mutation results in constitutive activation of the MR, making the MR responsive to progesterone.

Activation of MR leads to unregulated sodium ion reabsorption via the collecting duct sodium ion channel, with accompanying hypokalemia and alkalosis. The disease is characterized by severe exacerbations of hypertension during pregnancy, and spironolactone can exacerbate hypertension.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH; see Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital, Due to 11-Beta-Hydroxylase Deficiency [OMIM] and Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital, Due to 17-Alpha-Hydroxylase Deficiency [OMIM]) can be caused by deficiency of either 11-beta-hydroxylase or 17-alpha-hydroxylase. Both enzymes are involved in the synthesis of adrenal steroids.

Deficiency of either enzyme leads to increased levels of the mineralocorticoid 11-deoxycortisol, while cortisol and aldosterone production is impaired. 11-Hydroxylase deficiency differs from 17-hydroxylase deficiency by the presence of virilization.

Chloride-resistant alkalosis (urine chloride >20 mEq/L) with hypotension or normotension may be a manifestation of Bartter syndrome (see Hypokalemic Alkalosis with Hypercalciuria [OMIM]), an inherited autosomal recessive disorder. In Bartter syndrome, impaired reabsorption of sodium ions and chloride ions in the thick ascending loop of Henle leads to their increased delivery to the distal nephron.

The impaired reabsorption of sodium chloride in the loop of Henle is secondary to loss of function mutations of 1 of several transporters in this site of the nephron: (1) the furosemide-sensitive Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter (NKCC2); (2) the basolateral chloride ion channel (CLCNKB); (3) the inwardly rectifying apical potassium ion channel (ROMK1); (4) barttin (BSND), the beta-subunit of the chloride channels, CLC-Ka and CLC-Kb; and (5) the calcium sensing receptor (CaSR).

Mutations of CLCNKB cause classic Bartter syndrome, while mutations of the other 2 transporters manifest with the antenatal form of Bartter syndrome.^[4] Edema and hypertension are absent, and hypercalciuria is common because the impaired reabsorption of sodium chloride inhibits the paracellular reabsorption of calcium. Because loop diuretics inhibit the Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- transporter, the electrolyte abnormalities observed in Bartter syndrome and with loop diuretic use are similar.

Gitelman syndrome (see Potassium and Magnesium Depletion [OMIM]) is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder in which loss of function of the thiazide-sensitive sodium/chloride transporter (NCCT) in the distal convoluted tubule occurs. The subsequent increased distal solute delivery and salt wasting with stimulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system lead to hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. Other features of the syndrome are hypocalciuria and hypomagnesemia. The electrolyte abnormalities resemble those caused by thiazide diuretics.

Pure hypokalemia (ie, severe potassium ion depletion) causes mild metabolic alkalosis, but, in combination with hyperaldosteronism, the alkalosis is more severe. Possible mechanisms of alkalosis in hypokalemia are enhanced proximal bicarbonate reabsorption, stimulated renal ammonia genesis, impaired renal chloride reabsorption, reduced GFR (in animals), and intracellular acidosis in the distal nephron with subsequent enhanced hydrogen secretion.

Magnesium depletion (ie, hypomagnesemia) may lead to metabolic alkalosis. The mechanism probably involves hypokalemia, which is usually caused by or associated with magnesium depletion.

Other causes

The kidneys are able to excrete any excess alkali load, whether it is exogenous (eg, infusion of sodium bicarbonate) or endogenous (eg, metabolism of lactate to bicarbonate in lactic acidosis). However, in renal failure or in any condition that maintains the alkalosis, this natural ability of the kidneys to excrete the excess bicarbonate is impaired. Examples include the following:

• Alkali-loading alkalosis
• Hypercalcemia
• Intravenous penicillin
• Hypoproteinemic alkalosis

Milk-alkali syndrome comprises hypercalcemia, renal insufficiency, and metabolic alkalosis. Before the advent of H2-receptor antagonists, milk-alkali syndrome was observed in patients who ingested large amounts of milk and antacids as treatment for peptic ulcers. Currently, the syndrome is observed mainly in people who chronically ingest large doses of calcium carbonate, with or without vitamin D (typically for osteoporosis prevention).^[5]

The hypercalcemia that develops in some of these persons increases renal bicarbonate reabsorption. Renal insufficiency can occur secondary to nephrocalcinosis or hypercalcemia and contributes to maintaining the metabolic alkalosis.

Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are dialyzed with a high concentration of bicarbonate in the dialysate to reverse metabolic acidosis (ie, hemodialysis using high bicarbonate dialysate). Sometimes, this high bicarbonate exceeds the amount needed to buffer the acidosis. Because the ability of the kidneys to excrete the excess bicarbonate is absent or severely diminished, the alkalosis persists temporarily. The degree of alkalosis might be severe if the patient also has vomiting.

Metabolic alkalosis has been reported after regional citrate anticoagulation in hemodialysis or in continuous renal replacement therapies. Citrate is infused in the blood inflow line in the hemodialysis circuit, where it prevents clotting by binding calcium. Because the dialyzer does not remove citrate completely, a fraction of the infused citrate might reach the systemic circulation. Citrate in the blood is metabolized to bicarbonate in the liver. The accumulated bicarbonate may lead to metabolic alkalosis.

In an international prospective cohort study involving 17,031 patients receiving thrice-weekly hemodialysis, high dialysate bicarbonate, especially in patients with prolonged exposure, contributed to higher mortality, most likely through development of post-dialysis metabolic alkalosis. The positive association between dialysate bicarbonate concentration and mortality (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.08 per 4 mEq/L higher; 95% confidence index [CI], 1.01–1.15; adjusted hazard ratio for dialysate bicarbonate ≥38 vs. 33–37 mEq/L, 1.07 [95% CI, 0.97–1.19]) was consistent across pre-dialysis session serum bicarbonate levels and between facilities that used one dialysate bicarbonate concentration and those that prescribed different concentrations for each patient.^[6]

Metabolic alkalosis may be a potential complication of plasmapheresis in patients with renal failure. The source of alkali is the citrate that is used to prevent clotting in the extracorporeal circuit and in the stored blood from which the fresh frozen plasma is prepared. Using heparin as the anticoagulant and using albumin instead of fresh frozen plasma as the replacement solution can prevent the metabolic alkalosis.

Recovery from lactic or ketoacidosis in the presence of volume depletion or renal failure typically occurs when exogenous bicarbonate is administered to correct the acidosis. When the patient recovers, the beta-hydroxybutyrate and lactate are metabolized to bicarbonate and the original bicarbonate deficit is recovered. The administered bicarbonate now becomes a surplus.

Refeeding with a carbohydrate-rich diet after prolonged fasting results in mild metabolic alkalosis because of enhanced metabolism of ketoacids to bicarbonate.

Massive blood transfusion results in mild metabolic alkalosis as the citrate in the transfused blood is converted to bicarbonate. Metabolic alkalosis is more likely to develop in the presence of renal insufficiency.

Hypercalcemia may cause metabolic alkalosis by volume depletion and enhanced bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule. However, hypercalcemia from primary hyperparathyroidism is usually associated with a metabolic acidosis.

The intravenous administration of penicillin, carbenicillin, or other semisynthetic penicillins may cause hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. This occurs because of distal delivery of nonreabsorbable anions with an absorbable cation such as Na⁺.

Metabolic alkalosis has been reported in patients with hypoproteinemia. The mechanism of alkalosis is not clear, but it may be related to loss of negative charges of albumin. A decrease in plasma albumin of 1 g/dL is associated with an increase in plasma bicarbonate of 3.4 mEq/L.

Summary of causes of metabolic alkalosis

Causes of chloride-responsive alkalosis (urine chloride < 20 mEq/L) include the following:

• Loss of gastric secretions - Vomiting, NG suction
• Loss of colonic secretions - Congenital chloridorrhea, villous adenoma
• Thiazides and loop diuretics (after discontinuation)
• Posthypercapnia
• Cystic fibrosis

Causes of chloride-resistant alkalosis (urine chloride >20 mEq/L) with hypertension include the following:

• Primary hyperaldosteronism - Adrenal adenoma, bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, adrenal carcinoma, glucocorticoid-remediable hyperaldosteronism
• 11B-HSD2 - Genetic, licorice, chewing tobacco, carbenoxolone
• CAH - 11-Hydroxylase or 17-hydroxylase deficiency
• Current use of diuretics in hypertension
• Cushing syndrome
• Exogenous mineralocorticoids or glucocorticoids
• Liddle syndrome
• Renovascular hypertension

Causes of chloride-resistant alkalosis (urine chloride >20 mEq/L) without hypertension include the following:

• Bartter syndrome
• Gitelman syndrome
• Severe potassium depletion
• Current use of thiazides and loop diuretics
• Hypomagnesemia

Other causes include the following:

• Exogenous alkali administration - Sodium bicarbonate therapy in the presence of renal failure, metabolism of lactic acid or ketoacids
• Milk-alkali syndrome
• Hypercalcemia
• Intravenous penicillin
• Refeeding alkalosis
• Massive blood transfusion

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Epidemiology

Metabolic alkalosis is the most common acid-base disturbance observed in hospitalized patients, accounting for approximately 50% of all acid-base disorders.

Mortality rates have been reported as 45% in patients with an arterial blood pH of 7.55 and 80% when the pH was greater than 7.65. Prognosis also depends in part on the specific condition or circumstances that led to metabolic alkalosis.

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History

Symptoms of metabolic alkalosis are not specific. Because hypokalemia is usually present, the patient may experience weakness, myalgia, polyuria, and cardiac arrhythmias.

Hypoventilation develops because of inhibition of the respiratory center in the medulla. Symptoms of hypocalcemia (eg, jitteriness, perioral tingling, muscle spasms) may be present.

The clinical history is helpful in establishing the etiology. Important points in the history include the following:

• Vomiting or diarrhea - Gastrointestinal (GI) losses of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Age of onset and family history of alkalosis - Familial disorders (eg, Bartter syndrome, which starts during childhood)
• Renal failure - Alkali-loading alkalosis develops only when impairment of renal function occurs
• Drug use (eg, loop or thiazide diuretics; licorice; tobacco chewing; carbenoxolone; fludrocortisone; glucocorticoids; antacids [eg, magnesium hydroxide]; calcium carbonate)
• Previous GI surgery^[7] (eg, ileostomy^[8] )

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Physical Examination

The physical signs of metabolic alkalosis are not specific and depend on the severity of the alkalosis. Because metabolic alkalosis decreases ionized calcium concentration, signs of hypocalcemia (eg, tetany, Chvostek sign, Trousseau sign), change in mental status, or seizures may be present.

Physical examination is helpful to establish the cause of metabolic alkalosis. Important aspects of the physical examination include the evaluation of hypertension and of volume status.

Hypertension accompanies several causes of metabolic alkalosis (see Etiology). Volume status assessment includes evaluation of orthostatic changes in blood pressure and heart rate, mucous membranes, presence or absence of edema, skin turgor, weight change, and urine output. Volume depletion usually accompanies chloride-responsive alkalosis, while volume expansion accompanies chloride-resistant alkalosis.

Bulimia

Because patients with bulimia frequently self-induce vomiting, they may have erosions of teeth enamel and dental caries because of repeatedly exposing their teeth to gastric acid.

Cushing syndrome

Findings associated with Cushing syndrome include the following:

• Obesity
• Moon face
• Buffalo hump
• Hirsutism
• Violaceous skin striae
• Acne

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): Infants with CAH secondary to 11-hydroxylase deficiency have hypertension and growth retardation. Male infants have premature sexual development, while female infants develop virilization. In 17-hydroxylase deficiency, males develop sexual ambiguity, while females have sexual infantilism.

Complications

Alkalosis may lead to tetany, seizures, and decreased mental status. Metabolic alkalosis also decreases coronary blood flow and predisposes persons to refractory arrhythmias. Metabolic alkalosis causes hypoventilation, which may cause hypoxemia, especially in patients with poor respiratory reserve, and it may impair weaning from mechanical ventilation. By increasing ammonia production, it can precipitate hepatic encephalopathy in susceptible individuals.

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Approach Considerations

Metabolic alkalosis is diagnosed by measuring serum electrolytes and arterial blood gases. If the etiology of metabolic alkalosis is not clear from the clinical history and physical examination, including drug use and the presence of hypertension, then a urine chloride ion concentration can be obtained. Metabolic alkalosis secondary to volume depletion is usually associated with a low urine chloride ion concentration (< 20 mEq/L).

For an algorithmic approach metabolic alkalosis, see the image below.

View Image

Algorithm for metabolic alkalosis.

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Serum Anion Gap

Calculation of the serum anion gap may help to differentiate between primary metabolic alkalosis and metabolic compensation for respiratory acidosis. The anion gap is frequently elevated to a modest degree in metabolic alkalosis because of the increase in the negative charge of albumin and the enhanced production of lactate.

Normal values for the anion gap vary in different laboratories and between individual patients, however, so it is important to know the range of normal for the particular clinical laboratory and the prevailing baseline value for a particular patient.^[9] In any event, the only definitive way to diagnose metabolic alkalosis is with a simultaneous blood gases analysis that shows elevation of both pH and PaCO₂ and increased calculated bicarbonate.

Serum bicarbonate concentration can be calculated from a blood gas sample using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, as follows:

pH = 6.10 + log (HCO₃^- ÷ 0.03 × PaCO₂)

Alternatively, HCO₃^- = 24 × PaCO₂ ÷ [H⁺]

Because pH and PaCO₂ are directly measured, bicarbonate can be calculated.

Another means of assessing serum bicarbonate concentration is with the total carbon dioxide content in serum, which is routinely measured with serum electrolytes obtained from venous blood. In this method, a strong acid is added to serum, which interacts with bicarbonate in the serum sample, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic acid dissociates to carbon dioxide and water; then, carbon dioxide is measured.

Note that the carbon dioxide measured includes bicarbonate and dissolved carbon dioxide. The contribution of dissolved carbon dioxide is quite small (0.03 × PaCO₂) and is usually ignored, although it accounts for a difference of 1-3 mEq/L between the measured total carbon dioxide content in venous blood and the calculated bicarbonate in arterial blood. Thus, at a PaCO₂ of 40, a total carbon dioxide content of 25 means a true bicarbonate concentration of 23.8 (ie, 25 - 0.03 × 40).

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation may fail to account for acid-base findings in critically ill patients. An alternative method of acid-base analysis, known as the quantitative, or strong ion, approach,^[10] determines pH on the basis of the following 3 independent variables (see Metabolic Acidosis):

• Strong ion difference (SID): Ions almost completely dissociated at physiologic pH (the cations Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺, and Mg⁺, and the anions Cl^- and lactate)
• Total weak acid concentration: Ions that can be dissociated or associated at physiologic pH (albumin and phosphate)
• pCO₂ (mm Hg)

In a study that compared the conventional Henderson-Hasselbalch equation with the strong ion approach, carried out in 100 patients with trauma who were admitted to a surgical intensive care unit, the investigators concluded that the strong ion approach provides a more accurate means of diagnosing acid-base disorders, including metabolic alkalosis and tertiary disorders.^[11]

• References

Urine Sodium Ion Concentration

Measurement of urine sodium ion concentration is used in many conditions to determine volume status, especially in patients with oliguria. However, volume depletion in metabolic alkalosis may not lead to low urine sodium. In the first few days of vomiting, the loss of acidic gastric secretions leads to an increase in serum bicarbonate concentration. The kidneys try to excrete the excess bicarbonate as the sodium or potassium salt. Therefore, despite volume depletion, the urine sodium level may be inappropriately high.

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Plasma Renin Activity and Aldosterone level

Measuring the plasma renin activity and aldosterone level may help in finding the etiology of metabolic alkalosis, especially in patients with hypertension, hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis, and renal potassium wasting without diuretic use. Low renin activity and high plasma aldosterone levels are found in primary hyperaldosteronism, including glucocorticoid-remediable hyperaldosteronism.

Low plasma renin activity and aldosterone levels are found in the following circumstances:

• Cushing syndrome
• Exogenous steroid use
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
• 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11B-HSD) deficiency
• deoxycorticosterone (DOC)-secreting tumors
• Liddle syndrome

High plasma renin activity and aldosterone levels are found in the following circumstances:

• Renal artery stenosis
• Diuretic use
• Renin-secreting tumors
• Bartter syndrome
• Gitelman syndrome

• References

Evaluations for Primary Hyperaldosteronism, Cushing Syndrome, and Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess

Measure aldosterone levels in a 24-hour urine collection after salt loading to diagnose primary hyperaldosteronism.

To test for Cushing syndrome, measure plasma cortisol at midnight during sleep or free cortisol in a 24-hour urine study, or perform a dexamethasone suppression test.

Measurement of urine cortisol metabolites is used to diagnose the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME). In AME and other conditions of 11B-HSD deficiency, the proportion of cortisol to cortisone metabolites is increased (ie, ratio of tetrahydrocortisol and 5-alpha-tetrahydrocortisol to tetrahydrocortisone).

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Evaluation for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Variants

In 11-hydroxylase deficiency, plasma and urine levels of DOC and 11-deoxycortisol are high. In 17-hydroxylase deficiency, DOC is elevated while 11-deoxycortisol is low. Another important difference between the 2 conditions is the impaired adrenal androgen synthesis in the latter and enhanced synthesis in the former. Therefore, measuring plasma or urine adrenal androgens (eg, dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA], testosterone) may help to differentiate between the 2 conditions.

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Diuretic Screen, Adrenal Imaging, and Renovascular Hypertension Imaging

Obtain a urine diuretics screen to exclude surreptitious diuretic use in patients having unexplained hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis.

Perform adrenal imaging studies (eg, CT scan, MRI) to find the etiology of primary hyperaldosteronism, Cushing syndrome, and DOC excess.

Renal Doppler ultrasound, captopril renogram, MRI, and renal angiography are helpful in diagnosing renovascular hypertension (ie, significant renal artery stenosis). The preferred imaging method is controversial. For more information, see Imaging in Renal Artery Stenosis/Renovascular Hypertension.

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Gene Analysis

Gene analysis is helpful to diagnose inherited causes of hypokalemic alkalosis. Examples are Liddle syndrome, glucocorticoid-remediable hypertension, Bartter syndrome, Gitelman syndrome, syndrome of AME, and CAH.

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Approach Considerations

The management of metabolic alkalosis depends primarily on the underlying etiology and on the patient’s volume status. In the case of vomiting, administer antiemetics, if possible. If continuous gastric suction is necessary, gastric acid secretion can be reduced with H2-blockers or more efficiently with proton-pump inhibitors. In patients who are on thiazide or loop diuretics, the dose can be reduced or the drug can be stopped if appropriate. Alternatively, potassium-sparing diuretics or acetazolamide can be added.

Acetazolamide also appears safe and effective in patients with metabolic alkalosis following treatment of respiratory acidosis from exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).^{[12, 13]} One randomized trial found that the duration of mechanical ventilation in patients with COPD or obesity-hypoventilation syndrome with metabolic alkalosis was not significantly reduced in patients who received early administration of acetazolamide, compared with placebo.^[14]  

However, a systematic review and meta-analysis of that trial and five other randomized controlled studies concluded that in patients with respiratory failure and metabolic alkalosis, therapy with acetazolamide or other carbonic anhydrase inhibitors may have favorable effects on blood gas parameters. In mechanically ventilated patients, carbonic anhydrase inhibitor therapy may decrease the duration of mechanical ventilation.^[15]

For a discussion of metabolic alkalosis in children, see Pediatric Metabolic Alkalosis. For a general review of acid-base regulation, see Metabolic Acidosis.

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Chloride-Responsive Alkalosis

If chloride-responsive alkalosis occurs with volume depletion, treat the alkalosis with an intravenous infusion of isotonic sodium chloride solution. Because this type of alkalosis is usually associated with hypokalemia, also use potassium chloride to correct the hypokalemia.

If chloride-responsive alkalosis occurs in the setting of edematous states (eg, congestive heart failure [CHF]), use potassium chloride instead of sodium chloride to correct the alkalosis and avoid volume overload. If diuresis is needed, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor (eg, acetazolamide) or a potassium-sparing diuretic (eg, spironolactone, amiloride, triamterene) can be used to correct the alkalosis.

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Chloride-Resistant Metabolic Alkalosis

Management of chloride-resistant metabolic alkalosis is based on the specific cause.

Primary hyperaldosteronism

Metabolic alkalosis is corrected with the aldosterone antagonist spironolactone or with other potassium-sparing diuretics (eg, amiloride, triamterene). If the cause of primary hyperaldosteronism is an adrenal adenoma or carcinoma, surgical removal of the tumor should correct the alkalosis. In glucocorticoid-remediable hyperaldosteronism, metabolic alkalosis and hypertension are responsive to dexamethasone.

Cushing syndrome

Potassium-sparing diuretics should correct the alkalosis until surgical therapy is performed. Definitive therapy includes transsphenoidal microresection of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)–producing pituitary adenomas and adrenalectomy for adrenal tumors.

Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess

Metabolic alkalosis in the syndrome of AME may be treated with potassium-sparing diuretics. On the other hand, dexamethasone may be used to suppress cortisol production by inhibiting ACTH. Unlike cortisol and some synthetic glucocorticoids, dexamethasone does not activate the mineralocorticoid receptor.

Licorice ingestion

Discontinuation of licorice ingestion corrects the alkalosis; however, because full recovery of the enzyme 11B-HSD may take as long as 2 weeks following long-term licorice use, potassium-sparing diuretics can be used during this interval.

Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome

Metabolic alkalosis can be corrected partially with the following:

• Potassium supplementation
• Potassium-sparing diuretics
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
• ACE inhibitors

Liddle syndrome

Metabolic alkalosis can be treated with amiloride or triamterene but not with spironolactone. Both amiloride and triamterene inhibit the apical sodium ion channel in the collecting duct. Spironolactone, which is a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist that works upstream of the defective sodium ion channel, does not correct the alkalosis or the hypertension.

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Specialized Therapies in All Types of Metabolic Alkalosis

Hydrochloric acid

Intravenous HCl is indicated in severe metabolic alkalosis (pH >7.55) or when sodium or potassium chloride cannot be administered because of volume overload or advanced renal failure. HCl may also be indicated if rapid correction of severe metabolic alkalosis is warranted (eg, cardiac arrhythmias, hepatic encephalopathy, digoxin cardiotoxicity).^[16] Seek the advice of a nephrologist when severe alkalosis is present and HCl therapy or dialysis is contemplated.

Dialysis

Both peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis can be used with certain modifications of the dialysate to correct metabolic alkalosis. The main indication of dialysis in metabolic alkalosis is in patients with advanced renal failure, who usually have volume overload and are resistant to acetazolamide.

With hemodialysis, metabolic alkalosis may be corrected by using a low-bicarbonate dialysate (bicarbonate can be as low as 18 mmol/L). Otherwise, acetate-free biofiltration (buffer-free dialysate), in which bicarbonate is not present in the dialysate but is infused separately as needed, may be used. In peritoneal dialysis, dialysis can be performed using isotonic sodium chloride solution as the dialysate.

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Consultations

Seek the advice of a nephrologist when severe alkalosis is present and HCl therapy or dialysis is contemplated.

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Medication Summary

The choice of therapy in metabolic alkalosis varies with the underlying cause. Depending on the may be used in specific situation, the following may be used^[17] :

• Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (eg, acetazolamide)
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Potassium-sparing diuretics
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
• Potassium supplements
• Fluid replacement
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 

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Acetazolamide (Diamox)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  This agent inhibits carbonic anhydrase, the enzyme that catalyzes the hydration of CO2 and dehydration of carbonic acid. Inhibition reduces reabsorption of NaHCO3 in the proximal tubule, leading to natriuresis, bicarbonate, diuresis, and a decreased serum bicarbonate level. As NaHCO3 delivery to the collecting duct increases, potassium secretion enhances, resulting in hypokalemia.

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Class Summary

Diuretics may be used to treat severe metabolic alkalosis in edematous states (eg, from congestive heart failure (CHF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or right heart failure).

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Hydrochloric acid

Clinical Context:  IV HCl may be indicated in severe metabolic alkalosis (pH >7.55) or when NaCl or KCl cannot be administered because of volume overload or advanced renal failure. This approach may also be indicated if rapid correction of severe metabolic alkalosis is warranted (eg, in cases of cardiac arrhythmia, hepatic encephalopathy, digoxin toxicity). HCl is available in preparations of 0.1 and 0.2 M, which contain 100 mmol H+/L and 200 mmol H+/L, respectively.

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Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Ammonium chloride is administered to correct severe metabolic alkalosis related to chloride deficiency. NH4Cl is converted to ammonia and HCl by the liver. By releasing HCl, NH4Cl may help correct metabolic alkalosis.

This agent is available as 500-mg tablets and a 26.75% parenteral formulation for intravenous use. The parenteral formulation contains 5 mEq/mL (267.5 mg/mL).

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Class Summary

Acidic IV solutions are used to treat severe metabolic alkalosis. Seek the advice of nephrologist in severe alkalosis when HCl therapy or dialysis is contemplated.

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Triamterene (Dyrenium)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Triamterene interferes with potassium/sodium exchange (active transport) in the distal tubule, cortical collecting tubule, and collecting duct by inhibiting sodium/potassium adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase). This agent decreases calcium excretion and increases magnesium loss.

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Spironolactone (Aldactone)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist that competitively inhibits binding to the aldosterone receptor. It competes for receptor sites in distal renal tubules and increases water excretion while retaining potassium and hydrogen ions needed to restore acid-base balance.

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Amiloride

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Amiloride is a pyrazine-carbonyl-guanidine that is unrelated chemically to other known potassium-conserving (antikaliuretic) or diuretic agents. It is an antikaliuretic drug, which, compared with thiazide diuretics, possesses weak natriuretic, diuretic, and antihypertensive activity.

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Class Summary

These agents may be used to correct potassium deficiency or fluid/electrolyte imbalance.

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Captopril

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Captopril prevents conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, resulting in lower aldosterone secretion.

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Enalapril (Vasotec)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  A competitive inhibitor of ACE, enalapril reduces angiotensin II levels, decreasing aldosterone secretion.

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Lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Lisinopril prevents conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, resulting in lower aldosterone secretion.

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Class Summary

ACE inhibitors block conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II and prevent secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. These agents are indicated in metabolic alkalosis due to hyperaldosteronism.

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Potassium chloride (Epiklor, MicroK, Klor-Con)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Potassium is essential for transmission of nerve impulses, contraction of cardiac muscle, maintenance of intracellular tonicity, skeletal and smooth muscles, and maintenance of normal renal function.

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Class Summary

Potassium supplements may be used to correct metabolic alkalosis, which is often associated with hypokalemia.

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Sodium chloride hypertonic, ophthalmic

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  This volume expander solution is used to correct metabolic imbalances.

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Class Summary

Fluid replacement is used in chloride-responsive alkalosis with volume depletion.

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Dexamethasone (Baycadron, Maxidex, Ozurdex)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Dexamethasone suppresses cortisol production by inhibiting ACTH. It does not activate the mineralocorticoid receptor.

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Class Summary

Corticosteroids are used in glucocorticoid-remediable hyperaldosteronism, metabolic alkalosis, and hypertension.

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Ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil, NeoProfen)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Ibuprofen inhibits inflammatory reactions and decreases prostaglandin synthesis.

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Indomethacin (Indocin)

• Dosing, Interactions, etc.

Clinical Context:  Indomethacin is a rapidly absorbed NSAID. Metabolism occurs in liver by demethylation, deacetylation, and glucuronide conjugation. This agent inhibits prostaglandin synthesis.

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Class Summary

NSAIDs may partially correct metabolic alkalosis in Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome.

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