In 1949, Georgeanna Jones, MD, first described luteal phase deficiency (LPD).[1] The inadequate secretory transformation of the endometrium, resulting from deficient progesterone production, has been implicated in both infertility and recurrent pregnancy loss.[2, 3] LPD has been the subject of much debate among specialists in the field of reproductive endocrinology since Jones' introduction of this condition into the medical literature. LPD has been diagnosed in 3-20% of patients who are infertile and in 5-60% of patients experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss. However, data show that 6-10% of women who are fertile demonstrate an inadequate luteal phase, which confirms the need for a better understanding of normal variations in the menstrual cycle and in variations that could be pathologic.
This article addresses healthy menstrual physiology, the proposed pathophysiology of LPD, current methods available for diagnosis and treatment, and reasons for the controversy surrounding this subject.
Following ovulation, the mature ovarian follicle forms the corpus luteum, which becomes a blood-filled structure that allows the precursor cholesterol to be obtained, initiating steroidogenesis and resulting in progesterone production. Whereas the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle can vary in length, the secretory phase lasts approximately 14 days, correlating with the life span of the corpus luteum. Presumably, progesterone prepares the endometrium for implantation and maintenance of a pregnancy. If pregnancy occurs, the production of progesterone from the corpus luteum continues for 7 weeks because of the tonic release of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. Studies show that after 7 weeks, the placenta takes over this function. If pregnancy does not occur, menses begins with the demise of the corpus luteum.
For related information, see Medscape's Pregnancy Resource Center.
The following mechanisms can cause an inadequate endometrial response to hormonal stimulation during the luteal phase.[4]
Abnormal follicular development results from inadequate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion from the anterior pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the granulosa cells of the developing follicle to produce estradiol from the conversion of its substrate androstenedione. A decrease in FSH release results in reduced granulosa cell growth and lower estradiol levels. Because the corpus luteum is not a de novo structure but is a direct result of the follicle, it shows the effects of abnormal folliculogenesis with decreased progesterone production.
An inadequate LH release can cause a decrease in androstenedione from the theca cells. Less substrate results in a decrease in estradiol and, subsequently, lower progesterone levels. Additionally, a suboptimal LH surge at ovulation causes deficient progesterone because of inadequate luteinization of the granulosa cells.
Uterine abnormalities cause changes in vascularization of the endometrium despite normal progesterone levels. Myomas, uterine septa, and endometritis are responsible for poor secretory changes in the endometrium.
Hypocholesterolemia is the substrate responsible for initiation of the steroid pathway. A deficiency results in low-to-absent progesterone production and a luteal phase defect.
United States
No consensus has been achieved regarding frequency; however, a 1991 symposium hypothesized that luteal phase deficiency (LPD) occurs in 3-10% of infertile patients, and healthy women have deficient luteal phase production of progesterone on a sporadic basis.
International
Presumably, international frequency is similar to that in the United States.
No morbidity or mortality has been associated with this condition.
Luteal phase deficiency affects women of all races.
Luteal phase deficiency affects only women.
Luteal phase deficiency primarily affects women during their reproductive years.
The patient may report menstrual cycles of less than 26 days or a luteal phase of less than 11 days by basal body temperatures; however, neither of these circumstances can alone be used to diagnose luteal phase deficiency.
Physical findings that might aid in the diagnosis of luteal phase dysfunction are those associated with abnormal endocrine function.
See the list below:
Ultrasound documentation of ovulation from follicular growth to collapse of the follicle is very accurate; however, this procedure is too expensive and time consuming to be realistic in all patients.[5] Ultrasound measurement of endometrial thickness has not been shown to be effective in the prediction of luteal phase deficiency.
See the list below:
See the list below:
The goals of pharmacotherapy in luteal phase deficiency are to restore ovarian function, reduce morbidity, and prevent complications.
Clinical Context: Used if hyperprolactinemia is the underlying pathology causing LPD. Tablets can be used vaginally in patients who cannot tolerate adverse GI effects.
Clinical Context: If LPD is caused by hypothyroidism, correction of endocrine disease results in normal luteal phase.
Clinical Context: Stimulates release of pituitary gonadotropins. Improves folliculogenesis and, therefore, the luteal phase. Works best in biopsies that are lagging 1 week behind the date of endometrial sampling.
Clinical Context: Long-acting dopamine receptor agonist with high affinity for D2 receptors. Prolactin secretion by anterior pituitary predominates under hypothalamic inhibitory control exerted through dopamine.
Clinical Context: Progesterone supplementation may be administered PO, IM, or vaginally. Oral progesterone is metabolized rapidly in liver, and the metabolites have little effect on endometrial activity. When administered IM, fails to achieve adequate levels of endometrial progesterone compared with vaginal forms. Vaginal progesterone is DOC for LPD; this is because of the proximity of the uterus to where the medication is delivered. Vaginal gel 8%, either qd or bid, is better tolerated compared to suppository form. Gel also provides increased receptor sites in the endometrium compared with suppository. Treatment begins 2 days after ovulation as determined by ovulation predictor kit. Correction of LPD can be confirmed by repeat EB.
Clinical Context: Improve folliculogenesis, which increases total progesterone. This remains an expensive method associated with increased patient discomfort because medication is administered SC.
All diagnostic testing and treatment can be performed in an outpatient setting.
Luteal phase dysfunction does not require hospitalization and therefore no inpatient diagnostic workup or treatment.
See the list below:
No methodology prevents luteal phase defect. Maintain a high level of clinical suspicion that such a condition exists when seeing a patient with infertility or recurrent pregnancy loss.
Complications are associated with the endometrial biopsy. Be cautious when performing the biopsy to avoid perforating the uterus. Advise patients to take a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) prior to the procedure to alleviate uterine cramping. No antibiotic prophylaxis is needed.
The lack of double-blinded placebo-controlled studies prevents an accurate prognosis for this condition. A report by the Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine concluded that there is no significant evidence that LPD alone can cause infertility.[7]
Patients should keep an accurate menstrual cycle calendar. Abnormal cycle length may heighten the physician's suspicion that a luteal phase dysfunction exists.