Restrictive lung diseases are characterized by reduced lung volumes, either because of an alteration in lung parenchyma or because of a disease of the pleura, chest wall, or neuromuscular apparatus. Unlike obstructive lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which show a normal or increased total lung capacity (TLC), restrictive disease are associated with a decreased TLC. Measures of expiratory airflow are preserved and airway resistance is normal and the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)/forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio is increased. If caused by parenchymal lung disease, restrictive lung disorders are accompanied by reduced gas transfer, which may be marked clinically by desaturation after exercise.[1, 2]
The many disorders that cause reduction or restriction of lung volumes may be divided into two groups based on anatomical structures.
The first is intrinsic lung diseases or diseases of the lung parenchyma. The diseases cause inflammation or scarring of the lung tissue (interstitial lung disease) or result in filling of the air spaces with exudate and debris (pneumonitis). These diseases can be characterized according to etiological factors. They include idiopathic fibrotic diseases, connective-tissue diseases, drug-induced lung disease, environmental exposures (inorganic and organic dusts), and primary diseases of the lungs (including sarcoidosis).
The second is extrinsic disorders or extrapulmonary diseases. The chest wall, pleura, and respiratory muscles are the components of the respiratory pump, and they need to function normally for effective ventilation. Diseases of these structures result in lung restriction, impaired ventilatory function, and respiratory failure (eg, nonmuscular diseases of the chest wall, neuromuscular disorders).
The mnemonic "PAINT" has been used to divide the causes of restrictive lung disease into pleural, alveolar, interstitial, neuromuscular, and thoracic cage abnormalities.
Air flows to and from the alveoli as lungs inflate and deflate during each respiratory cycle. Lung inflation is accomplished by a contraction of respiratory, diaphragmatic, and external intercostal muscles, whereas deflation is passive at rest. Functional reserve capacity (FRC) is the volume of air in the lungs when the respiratory muscles are fully relaxed and no airflow is present. The volume of FRC is determined by the balance of the inward elastic recoil of the lungs and the outward elastic recoil of the chest wall. Restrictive lung diseases are characterized by a reduction in FRC and other lung volumes because of pathology in the lungs, pleura, or structures of the thoracic cage.
The distensibility of the respiratory system is called compliance. Compliance is the volume change produced by a change in the distending pressure. Lung compliance is independent of the thoracic cage, which is a semirigid container. The compliance of an intact respiratory system is an algebraic sum of the compliances of both of these structures. Therefore, it is influenced by any disease of the lungs, pleura, or chest wall.
In cases of intrinsic lung disease, the physiological effects of diffuse parenchymal disorders reduce all lung volumes by the excessive elastic recoil of the lungs, relative to the outward recoil forces of the chest wall. Expiratory airflow is reduced in proportion to lung volume.
Arterial hypoxemia in disorders of pulmonary parenchyma is primarily caused by ventilation-perfusion mismatching, with further contribution from an intrapulmonary shunt. Decreased diffusion of oxygen rarely contributes to hypoxemia because sufficient time still exists for full equilibration of oxygen or carbon dioxide. However, if transit time is significantly shortened, as with exercise, this can highlight the pathology with significant exercise-induced desaturation.
Collagen-vascular diseases, including scleroderma, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis, are potential causes of restrictive lung disease.
Other causes may include drugs and other treatments (eg, nitrofurantoin, amiodarone, gold, phenytoin, thiazides, hydralazine, bleomycin, bischloroethylnitrosourea [BCNU or carmustine], cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, radiation). Also see Drug-Induced Pulmonary Toxicity.
Causes related to primary or unclassified diseases may include sarcoidosis, pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM), pulmonary vasculitis, alveolar proteinosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, and cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP).
Inorganic dust exposure (eg, silicosis, asbestosis, talc, pneumoconiosis, berylliosis, hard metal fibrosis, coal worker's pneumoconiosis, chemical worker’s lung) may cause restrictive lung disease.
Organic dust exposure can lead to hypersensitivity pneumonitis (eg, farmer's lung, bird fancier's lung, bagassosis, and mushroom worker's lung, humidifier lung, hot tub pneumonitis).
Idiopathic fibrotic disorders
These may include acute interstitial pneumonia, IPF (usually interstitial pneumonitis), lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis, desquamative interstitial pneumonitis, and nonspecific interstitial pneumonitis.
Extrinsic disorders
Nonmuscular diseases of the chest wall, in which kyphosis can be idiopathic or secondary, may cause restrictive lung disease. The most common cause of secondary kyphoscoliosis is neuromuscular disease (eg, polio, muscular dystrophy). Fibrothorax, massive pleural effusion, morbid obesity, ankylosing spondylitis, and thoracoplasty are other causes.
Neuromuscular diseases manifest as respiratory muscle weakness and are due to myopathy or myositis, quadriplegia, or phrenic neuropathy from infectious or metabolic causes.
Pleural diseases, including trapped lung or asbestos-related pleural plaques, are an underrecognized, and potentially treatable, cause of restrictive lung disease.
For intrinsic lung diseases, studies cite an overall prevalence of 3-6 cases per 100,000 persons. The prevalence of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is 27-29 cases per 100,000 persons.[3, 4] The prevalence for adults aged 35-44 years is 2.7 cases per 100,000 persons. Prevalence exceeded 175 cases per 100,000 persons among patients older than 75 years. Exposure to dust, metals, organic solvents, and agricultural employment is associated with increased risk.
In North America, the prevalence of sarcoidosis is 10-40 cases per 100,000 persons.[5]
The incidence of chronic interstitial lung diseases in persons with collagen-vascular diseases is variable, but it is increasing for most diseases.[6]
Kyphoscoliosis is a common extrinsic disorder. It is associated with an incidence of mild deformities amounting to 1 case per 1000 persons, with severe deformity occurring in 1 case per 10,000 persons.[7]
Other nonmuscular and neuromuscular disorders are rare, but their incidence and prevalence are not well known.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 35.9% of Americans older than 20 years are obese, and 69% of Americans are at least overweight (body mass index [BMI] 25-30).[8]
International
In Sweden, the prevalence rate for sarcoidosis is 64 cases per 100,000 persons. In Japan, the prevalence rate of sarcoidosis is 10-40 cases per 100,000 persons.[9] The prevalence of sarcoidosis is difficult to determine.
Pediatric data from England have demonstrated the prevalence of idiopathic scoliosis to be 1 case per 200 patients aged 6-14 years.[10]
The worldwide prevalence of fibrotic lung diseases is difficult to determine because studies have not been performed.
Race
Although a familial variant of IPF exists, a genetic predisposition has not yet been elucidated.[11]
The incidence among black Americans is 35.5 cases per 100,000 persons. In contrast, the incidence among white Americans is 10.9 cases per 100,000 persons.[5]
Sex
LAM and lung involvement in tuberous sclerosis occur primarily in premenopausal women, although a handful of cases of LAM have been reported in men. Sporadic LAM has a prevalence of approximately 4.9 cases per 1,000,000 women. Men are more likely to have pneumoconiosis because of occupational exposure, IPF, and collagen-vascular diseases (eg, rheumatoid lung). Worldwide, sarcoidosis is slightly more common in women.[9]
Age
IPF is rare in children. Some intrinsic lung diseases present in patients aged 20-40 years. These include sarcoidosis, collagen-vascular–associated diseases, and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (formerly referred to as histiocytosis X). Most patients with IPF are older than 50 years.[12]
The natural history of interstitial lung diseases is variable. It depends on the specific diagnosis and the extent and severity of lung involvement based on high-resolution CT scanning and lung biopsy.[12] IPF is typically a relentless progressive disorder, and patients have a mean survival of 3-6 years after diagnosis.[13] Early recognition of IPF is important for directing patient management and predicting prognosis.[14]
Pulmonary sarcoidosis has a relatively benign self-limiting course, with spontaneous recovery or stabilization in most cases.[15] However, up to 20% of patients develop pulmonary fibrosis and disability.[16]
Prognosis for collagen-vascular diseases, eosinophilic pneumonia, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP), and drug-induced lung disease is generally favorable with treatment.[17, 18, 19]
Patients with chest wall diseases and neuromuscular disorders develop progressive respiratory failure and often succumb during an intercurrent pulmonary infection.[20]
Mortality/morbidity
The mortality and morbidity from various causes of restrictive lung disease is dependent on the underlying cause of the disease process.
The median survival time for patients with IPF is less than 3 years. Factors that predict poor outcome include older age, male sex, severe dyspnea, history of cigarette smoking, severe loss of lung function, appearance and severity of fibrosis on radiologic studies, lack of response to therapy, and prominent fibroblastic foci on histopathologic evaluation.[13]
See the image below.
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Gross pathology of small and firm lungs due to restrictive lung disease from advanced pulmonary fibrosis.
The initial evaluation of patients should consist of a complete history, including a total review of past systemic conditions. A careful history of occupation, travel, habits, hobbies, exposures, and HIV risk factors is critical to help identify any etiologic agent or trigger.
Duration of illness
Acute disorders last days to weeks and include acute interstitial pneumonitis, eosinophilic pneumonia, and diffuse alveolar hemorrhage.[14]
Subacute disorders lasting weeks to months include sarcoidosis, drug-induced interstitial lung disease, alveolar hemorrhage syndrome, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP), and connective-tissue diseases.[15]
Chronic cases lasting months to years include idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), sarcoidosis, and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis.[15]
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis and COP may manifest as acute, subacute, or chronic disease.[14]
Smoking history
Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, desquamative interstitial pneumonitis, IPF, and respiratory bronchiolitis occur with increased frequency among persons who smoke or those who previously smoked.[16]
Prior medication use
A detailed history of previously used medications is needed to exclude the possibility of drug-induced lung disease. These commonly used drugs are nitrofurantoin, amiodarone, gold, sulfonamides, thiazides, isoniazid, chemotherapeutic agents (eg, bleomycin, busulfan, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate), procainamide, and hydralazine.
Radiation may also cause pneumonitis and fibrosis.
Family history
Familial associations include IPF, sarcoidosis, and lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM).
Occupational history
Seek a strict chronological listing of the patient's lifelong employment, including specific duties and known exposures.
Inhaled inorganic dust from substances (eg, silica, asbestos, beryllium, hard metals, cobalt) can cause pneumoconiosis.[18, 19]
Inhaled organic dust may cause hypersensitivity pneumonitis.[21]
Environmental exposure
A review of the domestic and work environment of the patient and spouse is invaluable.
Symptoms of intrinsic diseases
Progressive exertional dyspnea is the predominant symptom. Grading the level of dyspnea is useful as a method to gauge the severity of the disease and to follow its course. It is helpful to use an objective quantification of the degree of dyspnea, such as the number of steps walked before becoming dyspneic.
A dry cough is common and may be a disturbing sign. A productive cough is an unusual sign in most patients with diffuse parenchymal lung disorders.
Hemoptysis or grossly bloody sputum occurs in patients with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage syndromes and vasculitis.[22]
Wheezing is an uncommon manifestation but can occur in patients with an airway-centered process, such as lymphangitic carcinomatosis, chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, and respiratory bronchiolitis or sarcoidosis.[23]
Chest pain is uncommon in most instances of the disease, but pleuritic chest pain can occur in patients and presents as serositis. This can occur with rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and some drug-induced disorders.[20] Substernal chest pain is also commonly described in sarcoidosis.[24]
Symptoms of extrinsic disorders
Nonmuscular diseases of the chest wall affect patients with kyphoscoliosis. Patients younger than 35 years tend to be asymptomatic, whereas middle-aged patients develop dyspnea, decreased exercise tolerance, and respiratory infections.[25]
The cause of respiratory failure is often multifactorial and is secondary to spinal deformity, muscle weakness, disordered ventilatory control, sleep-disordered breathing, and airway disease.[26]
Neuromuscular disorders occur as the respiratory muscle weakness progresses. Patients develop dyspnea upon exertion, followed by dyspnea at rest, and their condition ultimately advances to respiratory failure.
Patients with neuromuscular diseases develop significant respiratory muscle weakness and may demonstrate fatigue, dyspnea, impaired control of secretions, and recurrent lower respiratory tract infections. In these patients, the central drive is not decreased.[27] Acute and chronic respiratory failure, pulmonary hypertension, and cor pulmonale eventually ensue.
The physical examination in patients with intrinsic lung disorders may yield distinguishing physical findings.
Velcro crackles are common in most patients with interstitial lung disorders.
Inspiratory squeaks or scattered, late, inspiratory high-pitched rhonchi are frequently heard in patients with bronchiolitis.
Cyanosis at rest is uncommon in persons with interstitial lung diseases, and this is usually a late manifestation of advanced disease.
Digital clubbing is common in those with IPF and is rare in others (eg, those with sarcoidosis or hypersensitivity pneumonitis). See the image below.
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Approximately half of the patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis develop clubbing. Clubbing is commonly seen in patients with asbestosis.
Extrapulmonary findings, including erythema nodosum, suggest sarcoidosis. A maculopapular rash can occur in those with connective-tissue diseases or drug-induced lung diseases. Raynaud phenomenon may be present in patients with connective-tissue diseases, and telangiectasia is present in those with scleroderma. Peripheral lymphadenopathy, salivary gland enlargement, and hepatosplenomegaly are signs of systemic sarcoidosis. Uveitis may be observed in those with sarcoidosis and ankylosing spondylitis. Other signs of systemic vasculitis may include palpable purpura, signifying a leukocytoclastic vasculitis. In addition, renal involvement may be heralded by hematuria and anasarca.
Cor pulmonale occurs in the late stages of pulmonary fibrosis or advanced kyphoscoliosis. Pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale become evident when signs include a loud P2, right-sided precordial lift, jugulovenous distension with a prominent A wave, and right-sided gallop.
Extrinsic disorders
By their very nature, severe kyphoscoliosis and massive obesity are easily recognizable. The pleural disorders are associated with decreased tactile fremitus, dullness upon percussion, and decreased intensity of breath sounds.
In cases of neuromuscular diseases, the physical examination findings may indicate accessory muscles usage, rapid shallow breathing, paradoxical breathing, and other features of systemic involvement.
Acute exacerbation in patients with IPF is a recognized complication that occurs unpredictably and presents as worsening dyspnea.[28] Chest radiography demonstrates bilateral mixed alveolar-interstitial infiltrates, and CT scanning reveals ground-glass opacities and consolidation. Treatment includes high-dose systemic corticosteroids, although these are likely not effective, and the worsening disease portends an extremely poor prognosis. Series of patients with acute exacerbation of IPF reported in-hospital mortality rates between 78% and 96%.[29, 30, 31, 32]
Routine laboratory evaluations often fail to reveal positive findings. However, anemia can indicate vasculitis, polycythemia can indicate hypoxemia in advanced disease, and leukocytosis can suggest acute hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
The decision to perform additional tests should be directed by the findings of the clinical assessment. Antinuclear antibodies and rheumatoid factor should be measured to screen for collagen-vascular disorders, creatine kinase for polymyositis, antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibodies for vasculitis, and antiglomerular basement membrane antibody for Goodpasture syndrome.
The presence of precipitating antibodies to an antigen may help in diagnosing hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Serum angiotensin-converting enzyme levels are often elevated in patients with sarcoidosis, but this finding has poor specificity.
Extrinsic disorders
An elevated creatine kinase level may indicate myositis, which may cause muscle weakness with resultant restrictive lung disease.
The diagnosis of an interstitial lung disorder is often initially based on abnormal chest radiograph findings, although they can be normal in as many as 10% of patients. All previous chest films should be reviewed.
The most common radiographic abnormality is a reticular pattern. Nodular, reticulonodular, or mixed patterns, such as alveolar filling (ie, ground-glass appearance), and increased interstitial markings are not unusual; however, these are not predictive of a specific pathological picture. High-resolution CT scanning can be helpful in such cases by providing an accurate assessment and is recommended before lung biopsy.[33, 34, 35]
Upper-zone predominance on chest radiographs is observed in patients with sarcoidosis, pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pneumoconiosis, or ankylosing spondylitis. Lower-zone predominance is seen in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), asbestosis, or collagen-vascular diseases.
The finding of honeycombing correlates with advanced fibrosis and indicates a poor prognosis. Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, with or without mediastinal adenopathy, suggests sarcoidosis. See the images below.
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Chest radiograph of a 67-year-old man diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, based on open lung biopsy findings. Extensive bilateral reticulono....
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A chest radiograph of stage III sarcoidosis. This stage refers to pulmonary infiltrates without evidence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy.
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Chest radiograph from a 39-year-old woman with severe kyphoscoliosis who developed hypercapnic respiratory failure. Spirometry findings showed a sever....
CT scanning of the chest
High-resolution CT scanning of the chest can be helpful, but the expense and high dose of radiation makes it inappropriate for every patient.[34] IPF can be diagnosed clinically based on the typical clinical features and CT scan findings without the need for lung biopsy.[36, 37] Bibasilar peripheral lung zone involvement is seen in patients with IPF, asbestosis, connective-tissue disease, or eosinophilic pneumonia.
Central disease along bronchovascular bundles is indicative of sarcoidosis or lymphangitic carcinoma.
Upper-zone predominance is observed in patients with sarcoidosis, eosinophilic granuloma, silicosis, or chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Lower-zone predominance is seen in patients with IPF, asbestosis, or rheumatoid arthritis.
Lower-zone and peripheral infiltration is ordinarily seen in patients with IPF or asbestosis.
The presence of bilateral cysts and nodules, with preservation of lung volumes, may suggest a diagnosis of lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) or pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis.
Bibasilar reticular fibrosis with coexisting retraction bronchiectasis indicates end-stage irreversible disease, and ground-glass attenuation may result from changes in the interstitium, air spaces, or redistribution of capillary blood flow.[38] See the images below.
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High-resolution CT scan of the same patient in the image below demonstrates peripheral honeycombing and several areas of ground-glass attenuation. Gro....
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A CT scan image from a 59-year-old woman shows advanced pulmonary fibrosis. Extensive honeycombing and traction bronchiectasis are present.
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Restrictive lung disease may occur in stage II and stage III sarcoidosis. In this image, mediastinal lymphadenopathy is shown secondary to stage II di....
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Sarcoidosis on CT scan shows nodules in midlung zones. These nodules are predominantly along the bronchovascular bundles and in a subpleural location.....
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Restrictive lung disease secondary to sarcoidosis.
Lung Ultrasonography
Lung ultrasonography has a limited diagnostic role in the evaluation of pulmonary fibrosis. However, it may provide some information. A 3.5- to 7.5-MHz probe is placed on the chest wall, using the intercostal spaces as an acoustic window. A high-frequency (5-7.5MHz) “vascular” probe or a low-frequency (2.5-5Mhz) “cardiac” probe can be used. Use of a higher-frequency probe may yield more resolution at the pleural line.
Pulmonary fibrosis is associated with pleural thickening, especially in the lower posterior lobes. Notable lung sonographic findings include subpleural cysts and nodules, thickening of the pleural line, reductions in lung sliding, and the presence of sonographic B-lines. In a study of 52 patients with diffuse interstitial lung disease and 50 control patients, pleural-line abnormalities (irregularity, blurring, thickening, and fragmentation), B-lines, and subpleural consolidations (< 5 mm) are found to be characteristics of pulmonary fibrosis on lung sonography.[39]
Tests for extrinsic disorders
Evidence of nonmuscular diseases of the chest wall and associated deformities of the spinal column and ribs are readily appreciated on chest radiographs. The severity of kyphoscoliosis is determined by the Cobb angle, which, when greater than 100°, indicates severe deformity. Neuromuscular diseases are also diagnosed based on chest radiograph findings showing low volumes and basal atelectasis.
Fluoroscopy is used to assess for diaphragm paralysis. A pleural sonogram of the diaphragm can also be use to assess for diaphragm paralysis.
A positive result from a sniff test may demonstrate paradoxical upward movement of the affected diaphragm.
Complete lung function testing includes spirometry, lung volume, diffusing capacity, and arterial blood gas measurements. Pulmonary function test findings do not indicate a specific diagnosis or help distinguish alveolitis from fibrosis. Findings from sequential tests are invaluable for monitoring the course of the disease and assessing the response to therapy.
All disorders are associated with a restrictive defect with a reduction in total lung capacity (TLC), functional reserve capacity (FRC), and residual volume (RV).
While a reduction in the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and the forced vital capacity (FVC) with a normal or increased FEV1 -to-FVC ratio suggests a restrictive pattern, the diagnosis of restriction is based on a decreased TLC. The assessment of the severity of restriction is also based on TLC.
A normal diffusion capacity of the lungs for carbon dioxide (DLCO2) in the setting of restrictive lung parameters suggests a chest wall or neuromuscular disorder. Conversely, a low DLCO2 in the setting of restrictive lung parameters would support interstitial lung disease or one of the pneumonitides.
An obstructive airflow limitation may be observed in patients with sarcoidosis, LAM, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, or pulmonary fibrosis with concomitant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). See the images below.
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Lung volume is plotted against transpulmonary pressure. Compliance is the change in volume for a given change in pressure. A patient with emphysema ha....
sus
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Pressure volume curve comparing lungs with emphysema, lungs with restrictive disease, and normal lungs.
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Idealized flow volume curves for normal, obstructive, and restrictive lungs.
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The expiratory flow volume curves of 2 patients are depicted graphically. A is a patient with restrictive lung disease (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis)....
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Pulmonary function test results from a patient with restrictive lung disease.
Tests for extrinsic lung disorders
In nonmuscular diseases of the chest wall, severe kyphoscoliosis produces a restrictive pattern. The TLC is markedly reduced, with relative preservation of the RV. The vital capacity is reduced, and the RV-to-TLC ratio is elevated. Chest wall components are reduced, and inspiratory muscle weakness may also contribute to the restrictive process. Maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures are modestly decreased in patients with mild disease but are severely reduced in patients with advanced disease.
Hypoxemia is due to a ventilation-perfusion mismatch caused by the underlying atelectasis and shunt.
In neuromuscular diseases, the maximal inspiratory and expiratory mouth pressures vary from normal to severely reduced. When maximal inspiratory pressure falls below 30 cm of water, ventilatory failure commonly ensues.
Patients with chronic muscular diseases have a decreased vital capacity and FRC, but the RV is preserved. TLC is also moderately reduced. Breathing during sleep is often abnormal in these patients, resulting in nocturnal desaturation during rapid eye movement sleep, secondary to hypoventilation.
The diffusing capacity of lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is reduced in all patients with intrinsic lung disorders; however, the severity of this reduction does not correlate well with the stage of the disease. The DLCO is the most sensitive parameter, and findings may be abnormal even when the lung volumes are preserved. A normal DLCO value excludes intrinsic lung disease and indicates a chest wall, pleural, or neuromuscular cause of restrictive lung disease.
Arterial blood gas values at rest may reveal hypoxemia. Arterial oxygen desaturation occurs with exercise, along with an excessive increase in the respiratory rate and a high ratio of dead-space gas volume to tidal gas volume.
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing with measurements of gas exchange and oxygenation is more sensitive, and findings correlate better with lung biopsy but do not help predict the prognosis. A 6-minute walk test with oximetry provides a measure of oxygen requirement and a quantifiable measure of disease progression.
In selected cases, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cellular analysis may be helpful to narrow the differential diagnosis. However, the utility of BAL in the clinical assessment and management of interstitial lung diseases remains to be established.
Performing BAL lymphocytosis in patients with IPF may help predict steroid responsiveness. A predominance of T lymphocytes with an elevated CD4-to-CD8 ratio is characteristic but not diagnostic of sarcoidosis. Significant BAL lymphocytosis suggests the presence of a granulomatous interstitial lung disease, suggestive of hypersensitivity pneumonitis, a drug reaction ,or cellular nonspecific interstitial pneumonitis.
BAL fluid may contain malignant cells, asbestos bodies, eosinophils, and hemosiderin macrophages, which assist in making a diagnosis. A progressively bloody lavage specimen would support a diagnosis of diffuse alveolar hemorrhage.
A primary role of BAL in the management of interstitial lung disease is to rule out infection. BAL fluid is highly sensitive for bacterial, viral, fungal, and mycobacterial diseases.
Lung biopsy
A lung biopsy is not always required to make a diagnosis in patients suggestive of having iingnterstitial lung diseases. A lung biopsy can provide information that may help lead to a specific diagnosis, help assess for disease activity, exclude neoplastic and infectious processes, establish a definitive diagnosis, and predict the prognosis.Open lung biopsy can be as valuable in selected patients[40] as high-resolution CT scanning, and the American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society (ATS/ERS) clinical criteria may misdiagnose patients with interstitial lung disease.[41] This is a bit confusing.
Fiberoptic bronchoscopy with transbronchial lung biopsy is often the initial procedure of choice, especially when sarcoidosis, lymphangitic carcinomatosis, eosinophilic pneumonia, Goodpasture syndrome, pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, or infection is suggested based on clinical evidence.
Despite the utility of transbronchial biopsy, certain forms of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias (ie, IPF, nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis ) require surgical biopsy to make an accurate diagnosis.
Surgical lung biopsy
Video-assisted thoracoscopic lung biopsy is the preferred method for obtaining lung tissue samples for analysis.
Histologic patterns may be helpful in narrowing the differential diagnosis.[42] Honeycombing is seen in end-stage disease, in which the original disease process often cannot be differentiated. See the image below.
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Intrinsic lung disease may progress to extensive fibrosis, regardless of etiology. This is described as honeycomb lung.
The common histologic patterns include interstitial pneumonitis (ie, IPF). Subpleural and paraseptal inflammation is present, with an appearance of temporal heterogeneity. Patchy scarring of the lung parenchyma and normal, or nearly normal, alveoli interspersed between fibrotic areas is the hallmark of this disease. Also, the lung architecture is completely destroyed.
Desquamative interstitial pneumonitis is characterized by diffuse and temporally uniform involvement of the lung parenchyma. The alveoli are filled with macrophages and hyperplastic type II pneumocytes.
COP (also called proliferative bronchiolitis) is often patchy and peribronchiolar. The proliferation of granulation tissue within small airways and alveolar ducts is excessive and is associated with chronic inflammation of surrounding alveoli.
Diffuse alveolar damage is marked by a nonspecific reaction with diffuse temporally uniform involvement and marked thickening of the alveolar septa; inflammatory cell infiltration and type II cell hyperplasia and fibroblast proliferation are present.
For acute interstitial pneumonia, the pathological appearance is identical to that of diffuse alveolar damage.
In eosinophilic pneumonia, eosinophils and macrophages are the predominant alveolar inflammatory cells, and they also extend into the interstitium.
Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis marked by a lymphoid infiltrate that involves both the interstitium and alveolar spaces is the prominent finding.
In nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, the lesions are characterized by a relatively uniform appearance consisting of mononuclear interstitial infiltrates associated with varying degrees of interstitial fibrosis.
Granulomatous lung diseases are marked by granulomas characterized by the accumulation of T lymphocytes, macrophages, and epithelioid cells. These may progress to pulmonary fibrosis.
The histological findings of various interstitial pneumonias include an interstitial cellular infiltrate and interstitial fibrosis, eventually leading to an end-stage honeycomb lung. These findings are described in detail in Procedures.
Table 2. Contrasting Clinical, Radiologic, and Histologic Features of Acute Interstitial Pneumonia (AIP), Usual Interstitial Pneumonia (UIP), Nonspecific Interstitial Pneumonia (NSIP),[43] and COP[44]
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See Table
See the images below.
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Histopathology of a case of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Alveolitis with fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition is present.
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In usual interstitial pneumonitis or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, subpleural and paraseptal inflammation is present, with an appearance of temporal ....
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Characteristic features of usual interstitial pneumonitis as described in the image below.
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Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (also called proliferative bronchiolitis) is often patchy and peribronchiolar. The proliferation of granulation tissu....
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Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, as described in the image below, showing a close-up view of fibrogranulation tissue in terminal airspaces.
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Granulomatous lung diseases are marked by granulomas characterized by the accumulation of T lymphocytes, macrophages, and epithelioid cells. These may....
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Multiple well-formed noncaseating granulomas secondary to sarcoidosis.
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Sarcoid granulomas.
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High-power view of sarcoid granuloma shows giant cells.
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A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen.
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A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen. The biopsy sample s....
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Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis, for which the prominent finding is a lymphoid infiltrate that involves both the interstitium and alveolar spaces....
Treatment depends on the specific diagnosis, which is based on findings from the clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and lung biopsy.
Corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, and cytotoxic agents are the mainstay of therapy for many of the interstitial lung diseases. Objective data assessing the risks and benefits of immunosuppressive and cytotoxic agents to treat diverse interstitial lung disorders are sparse. Direct comparisons among these agents are lacking.
Ancillary therapies include supplemental oxygen therapy, which alleviates exercise-induced hypoxemia and improves performance.
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
The rate of progression of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is highly variable, and controversy exists regarding the timing of treatment. The disease may be responsive to treatment in the early, so-called inflammatory stage. IPF always progresses insidiously, and documenting the changes over short periods is difficult. Initiate a trial of therapy for 6-12 weeks, starting as early as possible, with the hope of slowing disease progression. Discontinue therapy if no benefit is observed or if adverse effects develop.
The prognosis for patients with IPF who do not respond to medical therapy is poor. They usually die within 2-3 years. These and other patients with severe functional impairment, oxygen dependency, and a deteriorating course should be listed for lung transplantation.
Conventional therapies (corticosteroids, azathioprine,[45] cyclophosphamide) provide only marginal benefit to patients with IPF. Corticosteroids have never been studied against placebo. Retrospective studies have not demonstrated any benefit from steroid monotherapy.[46] Acute exacerbations may not respond to high-dose corticosteroid therapy.[47]
Intermittent intravenous cyclophosphamide given to IPF patients surviving 6 months improved pulmonary function and reduced prednisone dosage in one study.[48] However, current guidelines recommend against the use of combination immunosuppressant therapy, owing to limited efficacy data.[49]
Thalidomide has been shown to attenuate pulmonary fibrosis after a bleomycin challenge in animal models.[50] A randomized crossover design study has demonstrated a significant reduction in cough and improved quality of life in patients with IPF.[51]
Pulmonary rehabilitation has been demonstrated to improve overall quality of life and can provide education and psychosocial support for patients with IPF.[52]
A retrospective cohort study found that treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease was associated with an increased length of survival and reduced radiographic evidence of fibrosis.[53]
Supplemental oxygen can be provided for patients with hypoxemia (PaO2< 55 mm Hg or oxygen saturation [SaO2] < 88%) at rest or during exertion. However, rigorous studies of benefit or improvement in quality of life have not been demonstrated, as it has been in the COPD population.
Lung transplantation should be considered for patients with IPF refractory to medical therapy.[54] Transplantation has been reserved for patients at advanced stages of IPF. The 5-year mortality rate remains around 50%. However, bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS), a process of progressive fibrosis of the bronchioles, can occur post transplantation and has high mortality.
Because of a lack of response to available anti-inflammatory therapy, alternative approaches to therapy are being pursued.[55] Emerging strategies to treat patients with IPF include agents that inhibit epithelial injury or enhance repair, anticytokine approaches, agents that inhibit fibroblast proliferation or induce fibroblast apoptosis, and other novel approaches.[56]
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are a first-line therapy but are associated with myriad adverse effects. Corticosteroids, the most commonly used drugs, halt or slow the progression of pulmonary parenchymal fibrosis with variable success.
Questions about which patients should be treated, when therapy should be started,[57] and what constitutes the best therapy receive uncertain answers at present.
Although subjectively most patients with IPF feel better, an objective improvement occurs in 20-30% patients. A favorable response is a reduction in symptoms; the clearing of radiographs; and improvements in forced vital capacity (FVC), total lung capacity (TLC), and diffusion capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (DLCO). The optimal duration of therapy is not known, but treatment for 1-2 years is suggested.
Cytotoxic therapy
Immunosuppressive cytotoxic agents may be considered for patients who do not respond to steroids, experience adverse effects, or have contraindications to high-dose corticosteroid therapy. The failure of steroid therapy is defined as a fall in FVC or TLC by 10%, a worsened radiographic appearance, and a decreased gas exchange at rest or with exercise.
Azathioprine is less toxic than methotrexate or cyclophosphamide and may be preferred as a corticosteroid-sparing agent for disorders that are not life threatening. A response to therapy may not occur for 3-6 months.
Because of potentially serious toxicities, cyclophosphamide is reserved for fulminant or severe inflammatory disorders refractory to alternate therapy.
Antifibrotic therapies
These therapies, including colchicine, are suggested for a variety of fibrotic disorders, including IPF.
IPF subjects given high-dose prednisone had an increased incidence of serious adverse effects and shortened survival compared with those given colchicine in a prospective randomized study[58] ; therefore, a trial of therapy with colchicine is reasonable in less symptomatic patients or those who are experiencing adverse effects with steroid therapy.
One study showed that in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, interferon gamma-1b did not affect progression-free survival, pulmonary function, or quality of life. No survival benefit was demonstrated in this trial.[59]
Nintedanib, a triple tyrosine kinase inhibitor of fibroblast growth factor (FGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), has been demonstrated to lead to a reduction in the decline of FVC, led to improved quality of life, and yielded a reduction in acute exacerbations of IPF.[60] In 2014, the INPULSIS studies, two randomized, double-blind, phase 3 trials, were able to demonstrate that nintedanib led to a reduced rate of progression of disease in patients with IPF.[61]
Pirfenidone an oral medication that reduces fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition, via down-regulation of transforming growth factor (TGF)–β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)–α, was investigated in 2010 in two phase 3 trials.[62, 63] Results suggested that pirfenidone may reduce the FVC decline associated with IPF. Some conflicting data necessitated an additional phase 3 study. In 2014, the ASCEND trial, a multicenter, randomized control trial, demonstrated a reduction in the composite outcome of FVC decline and all-cause mortality.[61] Additional secondary outcomes demonstrated no significant decrease in all-cause mortality decline in the treatment arm. However, there was a significant improvement in progression-free survival.
Collagen-vascular disease
Therapy for pulmonary fibrosis associated with collagen-vascular disease is controversial because the course may be indolent. Because these diseases begin as an alveolitis, an aggressive approach may be warranted.
Patients with severe disease or those who have a deteriorating course must be treated with corticosteroids, cytotoxic therapy, or both.
Sarcoidosis
Because the disease remits spontaneously, patients with respiratory symptoms and radiographic or pulmonary function evidence of extensive disease may benefit from corticosteroids. Patients with hypercalcemia or extrapulmonary involvement generally require treatment. Therapy should be continued for 6 months or longer; however, even after prolonged treatment, up to 50% of patients relapse after therapy is discontinued.
For patients who do not respond to corticosteroids, alternate therapies (eg, chloroquine, methotrexate, azathioprine) may be used; however, data are limited.
Treatment of extrinsic lung disorders
Patients with nonmuscular chest wall disorders and neuromuscular disease may develop problems with ventilation and gas exchange during sleep. The effect of decreased chest wall and lung compliance or decreased muscle strength is hypercapnia and hypoxemia, which occurs initially during sleep. Identify and treat the cause of muscle weakness.
Treatment of neuromuscular diseases includes preventive therapies to minimize the impact of impaired secretion clearance and the prevention and prompt treatment of respiratory infections.
Patients who develop respiratory failure or have severe gas exchange abnormalities during sleep may be treated with noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation via a nasal or oronasal mask. Patients in whom these devices fail may require a permanent tracheotomy and ventilator assistance with a portable ventilator.[64]
Noninvasive ventilation with body-wrap ventilators or positive-pressure ventilation has been proven beneficial because it helps relieve dyspnea and pulmonary hypertension and helps improve RV and gas exchange. Also, hospitalization rates are markedly reduced and the activities of daily living are enhanced.[65]
Treatment for massive obesity consists of weight loss, which causes dramatic improvement in pulmonary function test findings but is harder to achieve. These patients require polysomnographic study because of the high incidence of nocturnal hypoventilation or upper airway obstructions. Either continuous positive airway pressure or noninvasive pressure ventilation helps correct hypoventilation and upper airway obstruction.
In advanced disease, when respiratory failure develops, these patients are treated with mechanical ventilation. If they have copious secretions, cannot control their upper airway, or are not cooperative, then invasive ventilation with a tracheotomy tube is indicated. In other patients, eg, those who have good airway control and minimal secretions, use noninvasive ventilation, initially nocturnal, and then intermittently.
If a pleural disorder is the cause of the restriction, surgery can occasionally be curative. Trapped lung and chronic empyema may be cured with decortication. FVC and FEV1 improve after decortication for chronic empyema, and chest wall deformity may improve after surgery as well.[66]
Acute exacerbation in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a recently recognized complication that occurs unpredictably and presents as worsening dyspnea. Chest radiography demonstrates bilateral mixed alveolar-interstitial infiltrates and CT scan reveals ground-glass opacities and consolidation. The treatment includes high-dose systemic corticosteroids, although these are likely not effective, and the disease portends extremely poor prognosis.
Clinical Context:
Prednisone is used as an immunosuppressant in the treatment of autoimmune disorders. By reversing increased capillary permeability and suppressing PMN activity, it may decrease inflammation. It is an oral corticosteroid with relatively less mineralocorticoid activity. Therapy is best prescribed in consultation with a pulmonary disease specialist.
Clinical Context:
Cyclophosphamide is chemically related to nitrogen mustards. As an alkylating agent, its mechanism of action of active metabolites may involve cross-linking of DNA, which may interfere with the growth of normal and neoplastic cells of the immune system. It is a possible steroid-sparing medication.
Clinical Context:
Azathioprine inhibits mitosis and cellular metabolism by antagonizing purine metabolism and inhibiting the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. These effects may decrease the proliferation of immune cells and result in lower autoimmune activity. It is a possible steroid-sparing medication.
Clinical Context:
Nintedanib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets growth factors that have been shown to potentially be involved in pulmonary fibrosis (eg, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor [VEGFR], fibroblast growth factor receptor [FGFR], platelet derived growth factor receptor [PDGF]).
Clinical Context:
Pirfenidone is an inhibitor of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), and it also inhibits the synthesis of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α).
How is restrictive lung disease characterized?How is the mnemonic PAINT used to divide the causes of restrictive lung disease?What is the pathophysiology of restrictive lung disease?Which intrinsic lung diseases have an etiologic role in restrictive lung disease?Which idiopathic fibrotic disorders have a role in the etiology of restrictive lung disease?Which extrinsic disorders have a role in the etiology of restrictive lung disease?What is the prevalence of restrictive lung disease in the US?What is the global prevalence of restrictive lung disease?What are the racial predilections of restrictive lung disease?How does the prevalence of restrictive lung disease vary by sex?Which age groups are at highest risk for restrictive lung disease?What is the prognosis of restrictive lung disease?What is the mortality and morbidity associated with restrictive lung disease?What should be the focus of patient history in the evaluation of restrictive lung disease?Why is illness duration significant in the history of restrictive lung disease?What is the importance of smoking history in restrictive lung disease?What is the importance of prior medication use in the history of restrictive lung disease?Which family history may be related to restrictive lung disease?Which occupational history may be related to restrictive lung disease?What is the importance of environmental exposure history in the evaluation of restrictive lung disease?What are the signs and symptoms of intrinsic disorder caused restrictive lung disease?What are the signs and symptoms of extrinsic disorder caused restrictive lung disease?Which physical findings are characteristic of intrinsic disorders causing restrictive lung disease?Which physical findings are characteristic of restrictive lung disease due to extrinsic disorders?What are the complications of restrictive lung disease?What are the differential diagnoses for Restrictive Lung Disease?What is the role of lab studies in the evaluation of intrinsic lung disease causes of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of lab studies in the evaluation of extrinsic lung disease causes of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of chest radiography in the evaluation of intrinsic lung disorder causes for restrictive lung disease?What is the role of chest CT in the evaluation of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of lung ultrasonography in the evaluation for restrictive lung disease?What is the role of imaging studies in the evaluation of extrinsic disorder causes of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of pulmonary function testing in the evaluation of restrictive lung disease?Which tests may be performed in the evaluation of extrinsic lung disorder causes of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of bronchoalveolar lavage in the workup of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of lung biopsy in the workup of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of video-assisted thoracoscopic lung biopsy in the workup of restrictive lung disease?Which histological findings are characteristic of restrictive lung disease?What are the treatment options for restrictive lung disease?What are the treatment options for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in restrictive lung disease?What is the role of corticosteroids in the treatment of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of cytotoxic therapy in the treatment of restrictive lung disease?What is the role of antifibrotic therapies in the treatment of restrictive lung disease?How are collagen-vascular diseases managed in restrictive lung disease?How is sarcoidosis treated in restrictive lung disease?How are extrinsic lung disorders treated in restrictive lung disease?When is surgical intervention indicated for restrictive lung disease?Which specialist consultations may be beneficial in the treatment of restrictive lung disease?How are acute exacerbations managed in restrictive lung disease?Which medications are used in the treatment of restrictive lung disease?Which medications in the drug class Pulmonary, Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors are used in the treatment of Restrictive Lung Disease?Which medications in the drug class Anti-inflammatory agents are used in the treatment of Restrictive Lung Disease?Which medications in the drug class Cytotoxic agents are used in the treatment of Restrictive Lung Disease?Which medications in the drug class Corticosteroids are used in the treatment of Restrictive Lung Disease?
Jonathan Robert Caronia, DO, Fellow, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Lenox Hill Hospital, North Shore LIJ Health System
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Coauthor(s)
Chuan Jiang, MD, Physician, Lenox Hill Hospital, Northwell Health
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Klaus-Dieter Lessnau, MD, FCCP, Former Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine; Medical Director, Pulmonary Physiology Laboratory, Director of Research in Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary Medicine, Lenox Hill Hospital
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Specialty Editors
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Daniel R Ouellette, MD, FCCP, Associate Professor of Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Medical Director, Pulmonary Medicine General Practice Unit (F2), Senior Staff and Attending Physician, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Henry Ford Hospital
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
John J Oppenheimer, MD, Clinical Professor, Department of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School; Director of Clinical Research, Pulmonary and Allergy Associates, PA
Disclosure: Received research grant from: quintiles, PRA, ICON, Novartis: Adjudication<br/>Received consulting fee from AZ for consulting; Received consulting fee from Glaxo, Myelin, Meda for consulting; Received grant/research funds from Glaxo for independent contractor; Received consulting fee from Merck for consulting; Received honoraria from Annals of Allergy Asthma Immunology for none; Partner received honoraria from ABAI for none. for: Atlantic Health System.
Additional Contributors
Lalit K Kanaparthi, MD, Attending Physician, North Florida Lung Associates
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Laurie Robin Grier, MD, Medical Director of MICU, Professor of Medicine, Emergency Medicine, Anesthesiology and Obstetrics/Gynecology, Fellowship Director for Critical Care Medicine, Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center at Shreveport
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC Professor and Head, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba; Site Director, Respiratory Medicine, St Boniface General Hospital
Sat Sharma, MD, FRCPC is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Thoracic Society, Canadian Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Royal Society of Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and World Medical Association
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. FastStats - Obesity and Overweight. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/obesity-overweight.htm. June 13, 2016; Accessed: October 31, 2016.
Schwarz MI, King TE, eds. Approach to the evaluation and diagnosis of interstitial lung disease. Interstitial Lung Disease. 4th ed. London: BC Decker Inc; 2003. 1-30.
James D. Sarcoidosis of the Respiratory System. 1986;8:1-111. Semin Respir Med. 1986. 8:1-111.
Gross pathology of small and firm lungs due to restrictive lung disease from advanced pulmonary fibrosis.
Approximately half of the patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis develop clubbing. Clubbing is commonly seen in patients with asbestosis.
Chest radiograph of a 67-year-old man diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, based on open lung biopsy findings. Extensive bilateral reticulonodular opacities are seen in both lower lobes.
A chest radiograph of stage III sarcoidosis. This stage refers to pulmonary infiltrates without evidence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy.
Chest radiograph from a 39-year-old woman with severe kyphoscoliosis who developed hypercapnic respiratory failure. Spirometry findings showed a severe restrictive lung disease, with a forced expiratory volume in one second of 0.4 L/s and a forced vital capacity of 0.5 L.
High-resolution CT scan of the same patient in the image below demonstrates peripheral honeycombing and several areas of ground-glass attenuation. Ground-glass opacification may correlate with active alveolitis and a favorable response to therapy.
A CT scan image from a 59-year-old woman shows advanced pulmonary fibrosis. Extensive honeycombing and traction bronchiectasis are present.
Restrictive lung disease may occur in stage II and stage III sarcoidosis. In this image, mediastinal lymphadenopathy is shown secondary to stage II disease.
Sarcoidosis on CT scan shows nodules in midlung zones. These nodules are predominantly along the bronchovascular bundles and in a subpleural location.
Restrictive lung disease secondary to sarcoidosis.
Lung volume is plotted against transpulmonary pressure. Compliance is the change in volume for a given change in pressure. A patient with emphysema has a higher lung compliance compared with a patient with no lung disease, while a patient with restrictive lung disease has a reduction in compliance.
Pressure volume curve comparing lungs with emphysema, lungs with restrictive disease, and normal lungs.
Idealized flow volume curves for normal, obstructive, and restrictive lungs.
The expiratory flow volume curves of 2 patients are depicted graphically. A is a patient with restrictive lung disease (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis), low forced vital capacity (FVC), but an increased ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) to FVC because of increased elastic recoil. B is a patient with chronic obstructive lung disease whose FEV1/FVC ratio is low but whose lung volumes are increased.
Pulmonary function test results from a patient with restrictive lung disease.
Intrinsic lung disease may progress to extensive fibrosis, regardless of etiology. This is described as honeycomb lung.
Histopathology of a case of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Alveolitis with fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition is present.
In usual interstitial pneumonitis or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, subpleural and paraseptal inflammation is present, with an appearance of temporal heterogeneity. Patchy scarring of the lung parenchyma and normal, or nearly normal, alveoli interspersed between fibrotic areas are the hallmarks of this disease. Additionally, the lung architecture is completely destroyed.
Characteristic features of usual interstitial pneumonitis as described in the image below.
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (also called proliferative bronchiolitis) is often patchy and peribronchiolar. The proliferation of granulation tissue within small airways and alveolar ducts is excessive and is associated with chronic inflammation of surrounding alveoli.
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, as described in the image below, showing a close-up view of fibrogranulation tissue in terminal airspaces.
Granulomatous lung diseases are marked by granulomas characterized by the accumulation of T lymphocytes, macrophages, and epithelioid cells. These may progress to pulmonary fibrosis. This low-power image shows well-formed granuloma along the airway.
Multiple well-formed noncaseating granulomas secondary to sarcoidosis.
Sarcoid granulomas.
High-power view of sarcoid granuloma shows giant cells.
A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen.
A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen. The biopsy sample shows intraluminal buds of granulation tissue.
Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis, for which the prominent finding is a lymphoid infiltrate that involves both the interstitium and alveolar spaces.
Usual interstitial pneumonitis honeycombing.
Approximately half of the patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis develop clubbing. Clubbing is commonly seen in patients with asbestosis.
Lung volume is plotted against transpulmonary pressure. Compliance is the change in volume for a given change in pressure. A patient with emphysema has a higher lung compliance compared with a patient with no lung disease, while a patient with restrictive lung disease has a reduction in compliance.
Idealized flow volume curves for normal, obstructive, and restrictive lungs.
The expiratory flow volume curves of 2 patients are depicted graphically. A is a patient with restrictive lung disease (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis), low forced vital capacity (FVC), but an increased ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) to FVC because of increased elastic recoil. B is a patient with chronic obstructive lung disease whose FEV1/FVC ratio is low but whose lung volumes are increased.
Pulmonary function test results from a patient with restrictive lung disease.
Gross pathology of small and firm lungs due to restrictive lung disease from advanced pulmonary fibrosis.
Intrinsic lung disease may progress to extensive fibrosis, regardless of etiology. This is described as honeycomb lung.
End-stage sarcoidosis.
Usual interstitial pneumonitis (left).
Usual interstitial pneumonitis (right).
Histopathology of a case of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Alveolitis with fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition is present.
In usual interstitial pneumonitis or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, subpleural and paraseptal inflammation is present, with an appearance of temporal heterogeneity. Patchy scarring of the lung parenchyma and normal, or nearly normal, alveoli interspersed between fibrotic areas are the hallmarks of this disease. Additionally, the lung architecture is completely destroyed.
Characteristic features of usual interstitial pneumonitis as described in the image below.
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (also called proliferative bronchiolitis) is often patchy and peribronchiolar. The proliferation of granulation tissue within small airways and alveolar ducts is excessive and is associated with chronic inflammation of surrounding alveoli.
Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, as described in the image below, showing a close-up view of fibrogranulation tissue in terminal airspaces.
Granulomatous lung diseases are marked by granulomas characterized by the accumulation of T lymphocytes, macrophages, and epithelioid cells. These may progress to pulmonary fibrosis. This low-power image shows well-formed granuloma along the airway.
Multiple well-formed noncaseating granulomas secondary to sarcoidosis.
Sarcoid granulomas.
High-power view of sarcoid granuloma shows giant cells.
A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen.
A patient who developed restrictive lung disease had findings of cryptogenic organizing pneumonia on an open lung biopsy specimen. The biopsy sample shows intraluminal buds of granulation tissue.
Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis, for which the prominent finding is a lymphoid infiltrate that involves both the interstitium and alveolar spaces.
Usual interstitial pneumonitis honeycombing.
Chest radiograph of a 67-year-old man diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, based on open lung biopsy findings. Extensive bilateral reticulonodular opacities are seen in both lower lobes.
High-resolution CT scan of the same patient in the image below demonstrates peripheral honeycombing and several areas of ground-glass attenuation. Ground-glass opacification may correlate with active alveolitis and a favorable response to therapy.
A CT scan image from a 59-year-old woman shows advanced pulmonary fibrosis. Extensive honeycombing and traction bronchiectasis are present.
Restrictive lung disease may occur in stage II and stage III sarcoidosis. In this image, mediastinal lymphadenopathy is shown secondary to stage II disease.
Sarcoidosis on CT scan shows nodules in midlung zones. These nodules are predominantly along the bronchovascular bundles and in a subpleural location.
Restrictive lung disease secondary to sarcoidosis.
A chest radiograph of stage III sarcoidosis. This stage refers to pulmonary infiltrates without evidence of mediastinal lymphadenopathy.
Chest radiograph from a 39-year-old woman with severe kyphoscoliosis who developed hypercapnic respiratory failure. Spirometry findings showed a severe restrictive lung disease, with a forced expiratory volume in one second of 0.4 L/s and a forced vital capacity of 0.5 L.
The flow volume curve of a patient with lung fibrosis.
Likely case of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, which should be treated with prednisone.
Pressure volume curve comparing lungs with emphysema, lungs with restrictive disease, and normal lungs.
Causes
Examples
Diagnosis
PFT Findings
Pleural
Trapped lung, pleural scarring, large pleural effusions, chronic empyema, asbestosis
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