Background
Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) is one of the most common types of muscular dystrophy.3133 It has distinct regional involvement and progression. FSHD is an autosomal dominant disorder in as many as 90% of affected patients. Landouzy and Dejerine first described FSHD in 1884. Tyler and Stephens described an extensive family from Utah in which 6 generations were affected. Walton and Nattrass established FSHD as a distinct muscular dystrophy with specific diagnostic criteria.
Pathophysiology
It is an autosomal dominant disease in 70-90% of patients and is sporadic in the rest. One of the FSHD genes has been localized to chromosome band 4q35, but the gene or genes that are affected in FSHD are still unknown. Patients with FSHD have a shorter Eco RI digestion fragment detected by the chromosome-4qter DNA marker p13E-11. About 2% of FSHD patients are not linked to the locus at 4q35.[1]
The probe p13E-11 identifies 2 polymorphic loci at 4q35 and 10q26. The Eco R1 fragment of 4q is composed of repetitive DNA sequences that are 3.3-kilobase (kb) Kpn I tandem repeats identified as D4Z4. In control subjects, the D4Z4 repeat consists of 11-100 KpnI units, each 3.3 kb, whereas in FSHD this is shortened; the shortened Eco RI fragment in FSHD is 1-10 units. Diagnostic difficulties arise as these fragments also may come from chromosome 10, as already described. 4-Type units are resistant to Bln I and 10-type units are resistant to Xap I. The combined use of EcoRI, BlnI, and XapI in pulsed-field gel electrophoresis–based DNA separation techniques allows detection of 4q fragments.
FSHD is caused by a contraction mutation of D4Z4 macrosatellite repeats in the subtelomeric region of the 4qA161 haplotype of chromosome 4 in 95% of patients.
Those without FSHD have approximately 11-100 D4Z4 units, whereas patients with FSHD have 1-10 D4Z4 units.[2]
At least 1 copy of D4Z4 is required to develop FSHD.
Mosaic males are mostly affected, where as mosaic females with an equal complement of affected cells are more often asymptomatic carriers.
A bi-allelic variation of chromosome 4qter is known, designated as 4qA and 4qB. FSHD alleles are exclusively of the 4qter type (4qA161).
Although the genetic lesion is well described in FSHD, the causal gene and the protein products are not known.
Additional testing may be needed in patients without D4Z4 contraction for a deletion encompassing the region.
Patients with FSHD and no contraction of D4Z4 repeats may show loss of DNA methylation and heterochromatin markers of D4Z4 repeat.
The most extensively studies candidate genes for FSHD on 4q35 are ANT1, PDLIM3, FRG1, TUBB4q, FRG2, and DUX4.
Disease mechanisms
The actual genetic defect in FSHD is unknown. Possible disease mechanisms include the following:
Position variegation effect on a proximal candidate gene or genes
Direct and indirect evidence points to epigenetic modifications in the DNA. A local deficit of a repressor complex due to the contraction of D4Z4 may cause inappropriate expression of genes. This may account for upregulation of FRG2, FRG1, and ANT1 in FSHD muscle.
The most common modification of mammalian DNA is cytosine methylation that is necessary for many regulatory processes. D4Z4 was found to be hypomethylated in FSHD.
Myoblasts from patients with FSHD also demonstrate increased susceptibility to oxidative stress.
Misexpression of FRG1 (FSHD region gene 1) may lead to the development of FSHD. Knockdown of FRG1 in Xenopus led to the decreased angiogenesis and reduced expression of DAB2 (angiogenic regulator). Of patients with FSHD, 50-75% exhibit retinal vasculopathy and increased expression of vascular or endothelial-related FRG1 transcripts in the muscle. Thus FRG1 may be at least crucial for angiogenesis.
Deletion of D4Z4 macrosatellites results in aberrant gene expression. DUX4 transcript from the last D4Z4 (most telomeric) unit generates small si/miRNA-sized fragments; uncapped, polyadenylated 3-prime fragments encoding C-terminal portion of DUX4; capped and polyadenylated mRNAs containing the double-homeobox domain of DUX4, but splice-out the C-terminal polypeptide. C-terminal polypeptide produced by transfection studies inhibits myogenesis.[3]
DUX4 is a retrogene contained within D4Z4 repeats and is normally epigenetically silenced in somatic cells. D4Z4 contraction leads to loss of DNA methylation and heterochromatin markers in D4Z4 region, resulting in relaxation of chromatin structure and release DUX4 repression.[4]
Epidemiology
Old content
Frequency
United States
FSHD is the third most common muscular dystrophy. Estimated prevalence of FSHD is 1 case in 20,000 persons.[5]
Mortality/Morbidity
Most of the patients have normal life expectancy.
Sex
Frequency is higher in males; however, asymptomatic cases are more common in females.
Age
See the list below:
The usual presentation is between the first and third decades. Ninety-five percent of patients show clinical features before age 20 years. As many as one third of patients are asymptomatic.
Infantile onset has been described, but is rare.
New content
FSHD is considered one of the more common hereditary muscular disorders with a prevalence of ~1 in 8,000. It appears to affect males and females in relatively equal numbers. The estimated prevalence is between four and ten per 100,000 people.[6, 7]
Laboratory Studies
Serum creatine kinase levels are elevated.
Imaging Studies
Imaging studies show a selective destructive process involving the anterior compartment muscles of the leg. Hypertrophy of the psoas muscles also is observed occasionally.[9, 10]
Procedures
Muscle biopsy: If results of genetic testing for FSHD are negative, a muscle biopsy is strongly recommended to rule out other conditions that mimic FSHD.
Surgical Care
Scapulothoracic arthrodesis may be attempted in select patients with preserved deltoid function. An improved functional range of abduction can be achieved if the scapula is fixed in 15-20° of rotation. In a series by Bunch and Siegel, 11 of 12 patients improved with this procedure.[14]
Demirhan, using multifilament cable for scapulothoracic arthrodesis, provided satisfactory function (Level IV evidence) in 13 patients.[15]
Medication Summary
The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce morbidity and prevent complications.
Albuterol (Ventolin, Proventil)
Clinical Context:
Relaxes bronchial smooth muscle by action on beta2-receptors with little effect on cardiac muscle contractility.
Class Summary
By activating cyclic AMP, this agent stimulates the ATPase pump, thereby activating the beta-adrenergic pathway. Albuterol reportedly improves muscle strength in FSHD patients through its nonspecific anabolic properties.
Author
Naganand Sripathi, MD, Director, Neuromuscular Clinic, Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Hospital
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Specialty Editors
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Kenneth J Mack, MD, PhD, Senior Associate Consultant, Department of Child and Adolescent Neurology, Mayo Clinic
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
Amy Kao, MD, Attending Neurologist, Children's National Medical Center
Disclosure: Have stock (managed by a financial services company) in healthcare companies including Allergan, Cellectar Biosciences, CVS Health, Danaher Corp, Johnson & Johnson.
Additional Contributors
James J Riviello, Jr, MD, George Peterkin Endowed Chair in Pediatrics, Professor of Pediatrics, Section of Neurology and Developmental Neuroscience, Professor of Neurology, Peter Kellaway Section of Neurophysiology, Baylor College of Medicine; Chief of Neurophysiology, Director of the Epilepsy and Neurophysiology Program, Texas Children's Hospital
Disclosure: Partner received royalty from Up To Date for section editor.