Octopuses, which are organisms of the class Cephalopoda in the phylum Mollusca, are generally harmless and unlikely to be aggressive unless provoked.
Their bites are rarely life threatening, except for the bite of the greater blue-ringed octopus, Hapalochlaena lunulata and the southern blue-ringed octopus (also known as the Australian spotted octopus) Hapalochlaena maculosa, which are found in coastal waters and tide pools around Australia and other Western Pacific tidal pools.[1, 2] A third species, the blue-lined octopus Hapalochlaena fasciata, has also been described. These octopuses grow up to 20 cm in length with tentacles extended. They are normally light-colored with dark brown bands and blue rings or patches. When disturbed, their bodies darken, and the blue circles turn iridescent blue. Their venom can be released into the water to paralyze their prey, but its effects on humans primarily occur by injection of the venom upon biting.[3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
The blue-ringed octopus is shown below.
View Image
Blue-ringed octopus. Image courtesy of Simon Dubbin.
See Deadly Sea Envenomations, a Critical Images slideshow, to help make an accurate diagnosis.
There are many fractions in the venom secreted from the salivary glands of the blue-ringed octopus, one of which is identical to tetrodotoxin. This substance has also been found in multiple other tissues in H lunulata and H fasciata through fluorescent light microscopy.[10] Tetrodotoxin blocks voltage-gated fast sodium channel conduction, blocking peripheral nerve conduction, which can lead to paralysis and death from respiratory failure.[11] Nerve conduction studies in tetrodotoxin-poisoned (puffer fish)[12] persons have demonstrated reduced motor and sensory conduction velocities consistent with inhibition of sodium currents at the node of Ranvier.[13, 14] Reported central nervous system effects of tetrodotoxin in humans have included nausea and emesis, miosis, diabetes insipidus, and depressed cortical activity.
Other fractions of the venom include 5-hydroxytryptamine, hyaluronidase, tyramine, histamine, tryptamine, octopamine, taurine, acetylcholine, and dopamine.[15]
The blue-ringed octopus does not naturally dwell in the coastal waters of the United States.
International
Rare cases of octopus envenomation occur in the Indo-Pacific region.
Age
Individuals bitten by a blue-ringed octopus would have to be old enough and mobile enough to be able to walk or swim in the tide pools and coastal waters of Australia.
The prognosis for octopus envenomation is generally excellent, unless significant hypoxia has occurred. Patients should be warned that anaphylactic reactions may result in ongoing symptoms (eg, joint pains, effusions) for up to several weeks.
Mortality is rare. Full recovery is expected when appropriate measures are undertaken.
Any octopus can bite with its parrot-like chitinous beak.
The bite of the blue-ringed octopus is usually painless; however, the individual may experience a reaction similar to a bee sting.
If envenomation has occurred, symptoms are likely to start within 10 minutes of being bitten.
If a significant envenomation has occurred, the individual will rapidly progress from perioral and peripheral paresthesias through the following signs and symptoms.
Nausea and vomiting
Blurred vision
Ataxia
Muscle paralysis
Respiratory failure, which may lead to cardiac arrest and death
Anaphylactoid or anaphylactic reactions have not been reported.
Cardiopulmonary support, including endotracheal intubation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), as clinically indicated.
What constitutes proper wound care for octopus envenomation is controversial.
Immediately irrigate and care for the wound, as one would for any puncture wound.
Local suction without incision was suggested by Halstead, but this practice has not been shown to be effective in other envenomations and no evidence supports its use in blue-ringed octopus bites.
Consider performing a pressure immobilization technique, which is done by compressing a cloth pad with a bandage directly over the wound and surrounding tissues at 9.3 kPa (70 mm Hg) or greater of pressure.
The patient with octopus envenomation should be admitted to an intensive care unit until the venom has worn off, usually in 4-10 hours. Provide endotracheal intubation and ventilatory support until the venom has worn off.
Confirm that the patient's tetanus status is current.
No antivenin is available.
Neostigmine and edrophonium have shown benefit in restoring muscular strength in some cases of tetrodotoxin intoxication (eg, puffer fish), but have not undergone clinical trials in blue-ringed octopus envenomations.
4-Aminopyridine (Neurelan - US, Pymadine), a drug used as an antagonist to nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents (available in the United States as an orphan drug for multiple sclerosis), has been shown to reverse tetrodotoxin toxicity in animal experiments.[17]
If significant hypoxia has not occurred, recovery is usually rapid.
A general surgery consult may be indicated for wide excision of the wound. However, this has not proven to improve outcome.
A medical toxicologist (certified by the American Board of Medical Toxicology or the American Board of Emergency Medicine), or a poison control center certified by the American Association of Poison Control Centers, should be contacted regarding this uncommon intoxication.
The goal of pharmacotherapy is to reduce morbidity and prevent complications. Administration of nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking antagonists may be beneficial. 4-Aminopyridine (Neurelan) is utilized as an antagonist to nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents (available in the United States as an orphan drug for multiple sclerosis), has been shown to reverse tetrodotoxin toxicity in animal experiments.[2, 17] The dosing regimen for use in octopus envenomation is not yet established.
Jon Mark Hirshon, MD, PhD, MPH, Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine
Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Pfizer; Novartis<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Pfizer; Novartis.
Specialty Editors
John T VanDeVoort, PharmD, Regional Director of Pharmacy, Sacred Heart and St Joseph's Hospitals
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
James Steven Walker, DO, MS, Clinical Professor of Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Oklahoma College of Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Chief Editor
Joe Alcock, MD, MS, Associate Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Additional Contributors
Dana A Stearns, MD, Assistant Director of Undergraduate Education, Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital; Associate Director, Undergraduate Clerkship in Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School; Assistant Professor of Surgery, Harvard Medical School
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