Radial neuropathies result from injury due to penetrating wounds or fractures of the arm, compression, or ischemia. Most commonly, they present with a wrist drop. The pattern of clinical involvement is dependent on the level of injury.[1]
Radial neuropathies can occur from surgical procedures such as humeral nailing performed to stabilize an acute humeral fracture.[2]
The terms Saturday night palsy and honeymooner's palsy refer to the concept of placing one's arm over another chair, with the resultant pressure causing injury to the radial nerve.
An introduction to radial nerve anatomy is essential for understanding the common mechanisms and location of its injury. The radial nerve branches from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. It receives root innervation from C5-T1 spinal roots. In the upper arm, the radial nerve gives off a branch to the triceps muscle before it wraps around the humerus at the spiral groove. Three sensory branches, which supply the skin over the triceps and posterior forearm, also are given off at this level. Here, its proximity to the humerus makes it susceptible to compression and/or trauma.
After exiting the spiral groove, the radial nerve supplies the brachioradialis muscle before dividing into the posterior interosseous branch and a sensory branch. The posterior interosseous branch is a pure motor nerve that supplies the supinator. It then dives into the supinator through the fascia to supply the muscles of the wrist and finger extension. This fascia is another common site for nerve damage to occur. The sensory branch that arises approximately at the elbow travels down the forearm, becoming superficial at the wrist before it supplies the lateral aspect of the dorsum of the hand. See the image below.
View Image
The Radial Nerve from Gray's Anatomy (published 1918, public domain, copyright expired).
Radial neuropathy typically presents with weakness of wrist dorsiflexion (ie, wrist drop) and finger extension.
If the lesion is in the axilla, all radial-innervated muscles are involved.
The triceps and brachioradialis reflexes are decreased.
Sensation is decreased occur over the triceps, the posterior part of the forearm, and dorsum of the hand.
Acute compression of the radial nerve commonly occurs at the spiral groove. If the lesion is at this level, all radial-innervated muscles distal to the triceps are weak.
Triceps reflex is preserved, but brachioradialis is decreased.
Sensory loss is over the radial dorsal part of the hand and the posterior part of the forearm.
Numbness over the triceps area is variable.
In isolated posterior interosseous lesions, sensation is spared and motor involvement occurs in radial muscles distal to the supinator.
Brachioradialis reflex is intact.
The extensor carpi radialis sometimes is also spared, resulting in radial deviation with wrist extension.
Pain may occur with palpation at the proximal forearm and with forceful supination.
In distal radial sensory lesions at the wrist, no motor weakness occurs. Numbness of the dorsal hand is noted, sparing the fifth digit.
Penetrating trauma can cause injury anywhere along the nerve.
Compressive lesions high in the axilla can occur from improper use of crutches.
Compression injuries at the humeral spiral groove occur in patients with sustained compression of this area over a period of several hours.[3]
This is reported in patients who fall asleep in a drunken or drug-induced stupor with the arm over a chair. It also can occur in honeymooners.
Fracture of the humerus is a common cause of radial neuropathy due to compression or secondary laceration of the nerve as it wraps around the humerus near the spiral groove.[4]
Radial neuropathy has also been reported in wheelchair users, when the spiral groove of the humerus is compressed on a hard wheelchair surface.[5]
Subluxation of the radius can produce radial nerve injury in the proximal forearm.
The posterior interosseous syndrome typically occurs from compression of this division of the radial nerve as penetrates the supinator muscle within the proximal forearm.[6]
It is associated with repetitive supination of the forearm and hypertrophy of the supinator muscle.
It also can occur secondary to elbow synovitis, ganglion cysts[7] , enlarged bursa from the elbow, or tumors (especially lipomas at the entry of the radial nerve into the supinator muscle).
Isolated distal sensory radial neuropathy is associated with compression from handcuffs and tight bracelets.
Bilateral radial palsies suggest lead intoxication. Lead exposure may be occupational.[8]
A recent study showed that ultrasound examination can localize radial neuropathy more rapidly than standard electrophysiological testing.[9, 10] Visualization of the superficial radial nerve with high-resolution sonography has recently been reported.[11, 12]
Occasionally, imaging of the elbow region or the humeral area is indicated to determine if any mass or bony lesions are compressing the nerve. Plain radiographs may show bony causes of compression, such as fractures, dislocations, callus formations, or osteophytes. MRI is particularly helpful for soft tissue evaluation and more direct imaging of the nerve.[6]
Therapy is dependent on the site and cause of the lesion.
When the lesion is due to external compression at the spiral groove, removing the source of the compression and conservative management is indicated.
Physical therapy and wrist splinting helps in reestablishing functional use of the hand.
If the lesion is due to a humeral fracture, the fracture must be carefully reduced and set to avoid further injury. This may require external fixation.
If no recovery is noted within several months, then exploration for the site of compression or transection with possible surgical re-anastomosis may be indicated.[13]
With posterior interosseous neuropathies, repetitive supination of the forearm should be avoided.
In distal radial sensory nerve lesions, management is typically conservative.
Surgical exploration may be considered for a chronic compressive lesion or transection.
Surgical exploration frequently is indicated for release of the nerve from tethered points in the forearm.
Localizing the lesion prior to surgery via EMG is important to assist the surgeon in identifying which section of the nerve is most likely involved.
When transection is suspected as the mechanism of injury, conservative management for several months is indicated to assure that no nerve regrowth has occurred either clinically or by electrodiagnostic measures.
If no regeneration or inadequate regeneration is confirmed, surgical exploration with possible re-anastomosis may be indicated.
Selective tendon transfer may allow for finger extension and thumb extension in cases of long-standing, irreparable radial nerve lesions.[14, 15]
Consensus has not been reached regarding the need for and timing of surgical therapy to treat radial nerve palsy with accompanying humeral fracture.[16, 17, 18, 19]
Although no medications are specifically designed for radial mononeuropathy, in cases of neuropathic pain related to the neuropathy, various agents that may help reduce neuropathic pain should be considered.
What is radial mononeuropathy?What is the pathophysiology of radial mononeuropathy?What is the prevalence of radial mononeuropathy in the US?What are the racial predilections of radial mononeuropathy?What are the sexual predilections of radial mononeuropathy?How does the prevalence of radial mononeuropathy vary by age?What are the signs and symptoms of radial mononeuropathy?Which physical findings are characteristic of radial mononeuropathy?What causes radial mononeuropathy?What are the differential diagnoses for Radial Mononeuropathy?What is the role of imaging studies in the evaluation of radial mononeuropathy?What is the role of nerve conduction studies and needle electromyography (EMG) in the evaluation of radial mononeuropathy?How is radial mononeuropathy treated?What is the role of surgery in the treatment of radial mononeuropathy?Which specialist consultations are beneficial to patients with radial mononeuropathy?What is the role of medications in the treatment of radial mononeuropathy?What is the role of physical therapy in the treatment of radial mononeuropathy?What is the prognosis of radial mononeuropathy?What is included in patient education about radial mononeuropathy?
Wayne E Anderson, DO, FAHS, FAAN, Assistant Professor of Internal Medicine/Neurology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific Western University of Health Sciences; Clinical Faculty in Family Medicine, Touro University College of Osteopathic Medicine; Clinical Instructor, Departments of Neurology and Pain Management, California Pacific Medical Center
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Specialty Editors
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Neil A Busis, MD, Chief of Neurology and Director of Neurodiagnostic Laboratory, UPMC Shadyside; Clinical Professor of Neurology and Director of Community Neurology, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh Physicians
Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: American Academy of Neurology<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: American Academy of Neurology<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: American Academy of Neurology.
Chief Editor
Nicholas Lorenzo, MD, MHA, CPE, Co-Founder and Former Chief Publishing Officer, eMedicine and eMedicine Health, Founding Editor-in-Chief, eMedicine Neurology; Founder and Former Chairman and CEO, Pearlsreview; Founder and CEO/CMO, PHLT Consultants; Chief Medical Officer, MeMD Inc; Chief Strategy Officer, Discourse LLC
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Additional Contributors
Aashit K Shah, MD, FAAN, FANA, Professor and Associate Chair of Neurology, Director, Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Program Director, Clinical Neurophysiology Fellowship, Detroit Medical Center, Wayne State University School of Medicine
Disclosure: Received research grant from: Lundebck pharma.
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